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ELEMENTS 



PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
GEOGRAPHY. 

DESIGNED AS A 

TEXT BOOK FOR SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES, 

AND INTENDED TO CONVEY JUST IDEAS OP 

THE FORM AND STRUCTUEE OF THE EARTH, 

THE PRINCIPAL PHENOMENA APFECTING ITS OUTER CRUST, THE DISTRIBUTION 
OF PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND MAN UPON ITS SURFACE; 

TOOETHEB WITH ITS 

PRESENT POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 



I 1 



CORNELIUS S. CARTEE, A.M., ^ 

■i 
PRINCIPAL OF HARVARD SCHOOL, CHARLESTOWN, MASS. 

ILLUSTRATED BY WOOD ENGRAVINGS. 



BOSTON: 

HICKLING, SWAN, AND BROWN, 

1855. 



WM 



m 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the Year 1855, by 

CORNELIUS S. CARTEE, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 






STEREOTYPED AT THE 
BOSTON STEKEOTYPE FOUNDRY. 



PREFACE. 



The department of Natural or Physical Geography has 
hitherto received but little attention in our schools. The 
time of the learner has been chiefly spent upon the accidental 
or artificial divisions of the earth ; in learning estimates of 
population and extent, which, if true to-day, may be false 
to-morrow; in committing to memory a dry catalogue of 
names and definitions without any intelligible ideas asso- 
ciated with them — a collection of unmeaning facts, to be 
forgotten more easily than learned. 

It is of comparatively little use for a child to be told that 
" the earth is one of the planets," if he does not know what 
a planet is ; or to learn the location and extent of certain 
mountains, seas, and rivers, if he does not perceive their 
influence upon climate, vegetation, and the condition of man. 
The study of geography should not be limited to a mere 
description of the earth's surface, and of the organized 
existences which inhabit it. We should trace the general 
phenomena of the globe to the causes from which they 
originate ; we should endeavor to perceive that nice adapta- 
tion of means to ends in the relative position, proportion, 
and configuration of the land and water of the globe, which 
is so obvious in any single specimen of organic life. 

" In teaching geography," says Dr. Wayland, ** I would 
treat it as I would any other branch of physical knowledge. 
I would look upon the earth as a grand specimen in physical 
science, presented for our examination. The knowledge of 

(3) 



4 PREFACE. 

artificial divisions, of national boundaries, number of inhab- 
itants, revenues, exports and imports, will readily associate 
itself with the knowledge of natural divisions, and will be 
remembered more easily by means of a vivid objective repre- 
sentation. It is because the study of geography consists so 
much of these dry details that it in general awakens no 
greater interest in the pupil. Pursued as a branch of 
physical science, we should, in the first place, lay the 
foundation for wide and valuable generalizations ; we 
should create in the mind a consciousness of the need of 
geology, history, ethnography, and political economy, and 
thus accomplish the best purpose of teaching, by rendering 
every addition to our knowledge an incitement to further 
acquisition." 

In commencing this study, a difficulty is immediately 
presented to the young learner, in the enormous magnitude 
of the objects he is to contemplate. His mind is unable to 
grasp such immensities of extent and diversities of form. 
With no experience as a traveller or voyager, and, in most 
cases, having never been far beyond the limits of his native 
town, he can forin no appreciable ideas of the subject. He 
has learned nothing of geography by observation, he has seen 
comparatively nothing of the world in which he lives ; and 
what can he be presumed to know ? Certainly but little, 
very little. It is evident, therefore, that the learner must 
commence the study of geography by first learning the 
topography of the place where he lives ; in other words, he 
must begin at home. His attention should be first directed 
to the school room itself — its form, the relative position 
of the various objects within it. Then let a drawing or 
map of it be made on the blackboard. Next, by a walk 
about the grounds of the school house, draw liis atten- 
tion to the prominent objects in its vicinity; determine the 
position of the edifice by the points of the compass, by which 
to note the topography of those objects ; notice whether the 
house stands on high or low ground ; observe the neighbor- 



PREFACE. 5 

ing trees, rocks, and hills ; if there be a brook or river near 
by, observe its course, and what determines that course. 
Trace effects to their causes wherever practicable. 

After such explorations, let the learner take his slate, and 
map out such parts of what he has seen as may be thought 
necessary. Endeavor to give him right ideas of distance, 
of height and depth. Before alluding to the earth's rotund- 
ity, carefully prepare his mind to assent to this fact, by 
observing the eifect produced on his field of view in looking 
at the surrounding scenery from different heights. If pos- 
sible, let him get a view from the sea shore, to remark the 
vessels as they appear in the horizon. 

Avoid the use of the technicalities of the science and set 
definitions, until the learner has attained to such a knowledge 
of facts and principles, by personal observation, as will serve 
him for a stand-point from which his imagination may ven- 
ture to look out without fear of confusion. 

If apparatus be essential in teaching natural philosophy 
and chemistry, it is certainly no less so in the science of 
geography. Therefore let the school room be amply fur- 
nished with artificial globes, models, maps, and pictures of 
natural scenery. Relief maps and relief globes, such as are 
so beautifully and accurately manufactured in Germany, 
and Professor Guyot's Series of elegantly colored Mural Maps, 
published in Boston, furnish the best means, of an artificial 
nature, for imparting right ideas of the earth's surface. 
These, with any one of the best School Atlases extant, will 
sufiiciently illustrate the following pages. 

In the orthography and pronunciation of geographical 
names, we have followed the " Universal Pronouncing Gaz- 
etteer" of Baldwin, whenever available, and have used Dr. 
J. E, Worcester's system of notation. In the compilation of 
the work, materials have been drawn from various sources ; 
but the author is chiefly indebted to the more recent works 
of Humboldt, Petermann, Milner, Johnston, Guyot, Miss R. 
M. Zornlin, and Mrs. Somerville. The author would also 
1* 



6 PREFACE. 

gratefully acknowledge his special obligations to M. F. 
Maury, LL. D., Lieut U. S. N., Superintendent of the Na- 
tional Observatory at Washington, for much valuable in- 
formation on the subjects of winds, rains, and currents, and 
for the privilege of taking copies of several plates from the 
last edition of " Maury's Sailing Directions." 

As a guide to the teacher in conducting recitations, an 
analysis of the text of each page is given in the foot margin, 
either as topics or questions. Besides the numerous ques- 
tions interspersed throughout the work as map exercises 
and reviews, various problems are appended to certain chap- 
ters, the solution of which will require an understanding of 
the principles previously developed. 

Boston, August, 1855. 



CONTENTS. 



PAOB 

Inditctiye Lessons, 11 

PAET FIRST. 

ELEMENTS OE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

CHAPTER I. — Preliminary Observations, 15 

II. — The Contours of Land and Water, 19 

III. — The RELiEi'S op the Land Surface, 23 

An Outline of Geology, 28 

CHAPTER IV. — The Water Surface of the Earth 32 

Questions for Map Exercises on the Oceans, 36 

CHAPTER V. — Mathematical and Astronomical Elements, . . 38 

§ 1. Problems, 45 

2. Exercises on the Maps 47 

CHAPTER VI. — Special Geography of North America, 50 

§ 1. Extent and General Features, , 52 

2. Mountain Systems, 53 

3. Plateaus, 57 

4. Declivities and Plains, 5S 

5. River Systems, 60 

6. Lakes, 62 

7. Physical Aspects of Central America and the West Indies, 63 

8. Geology of North America, 65 

9. Questions for Review, 67 

CHAPTER VII. — Special Geography of South America, .... 69 

§ 1. Extent and General Features, 71 

2. Mountain Systems, 71 

3. Plateaus, 74 

4. Declivities and Plains, 75 

5. River Systems, 76 

6. Lakes, 78 

7. Geology, 79 

8. Questions for Review, 80 

CHAPTER VIII. — Special Geography of Europe, 82 

§ 1. Extent and General Features, 83 

2. Central Highlands, 84 

3. Southern Peninsulas, 87 

(7) 



m CONTENTS. 

4. Northern Highlands, 88 

6. The Great European Plain 90 

6. River Systems, 90 

7. Lakes 94 

8. Geology, 94 

9. Questions for Review, ^ 96 

CHAPTER IX. — Special Geography op Asia, 98 

§ 1. Extent and General Features, 99 

2. Mountain Systems, 100 

3. Plateaus, 102 

4. Declivities and Plains, 104 

6. River Systems, 106 

6. Lakes, 109 

7. Geology, Ill 

8. Questions for Review, 112 

CHAPTER X. — Special Geography of Africa, 114 

§ 1. Extent and General Features, 115 

2. Mountain Systems, 116 

3. Plateaus, 117 

4. Declivities and Plains, 118 

5. River Systems, • 119 

6. Lakes, 122 

7. Geology, 122 

8. Questions for Review, 123 

CHAPTER XI. — Special Geography of Australia, &c., 125 

CHAPTER XII. — General and Comparative View of the Con- 
tinents, 130 

CHAPTER XIII. — General and Comparative View of the 

Oceans, 137 

Exercises for Exammation, 140 

CHAPTER XIV. — Of Air and Water as Envelopes op the 

Land, • 142 

CHAPTER XV. — Of Heat, Electricity, and Magnetism, 145 

§ 1. Heat. Problems, 145 

2. Electricity, 148 

3. Magnetism 149 

CHAPTER XVI. — Of Climate 151 

CHAPTER XVII. — Of Winds, 157 

§ 1. General System of Atmospheric Circulation, 157 

2. Trade Winds and Monspons, 162 

3. Winds of the Temperate and Polar Regions, 164 

CHAPTER XVIIL — Or Rain, 166 

§ 1. General Observations, 166 

2. Of Clouds 168 

3. Periodical and Continuous Rains, 171 

4. Rains of the Western Hemisphere, 174 

5. Rains of the Eastern Hemisphere 176 

6. Summary, 178 

CHAPTER XIX. — On Ocean Currents, 179 

§ 1. General Observations, 179 

2. South Polar Current, 181 

3. Grand Equatorial Current, 182 

4. The Gulf Stream 183 

6. North Polar Currents, &c., 185 

6. Effects of Currents on Navigation, 186 



CONTENTS. 9 

7. Problems, 188 

8. Exercises for Examination, 190 

CHAPTER XX. — Geographical Disteirution of Vegetables,. 194 
CHAPTER XXI. — Geographical Distribution of Animals, ... 202 

§ 1. General Observations, 202 

2. Arctic Fauna 204 

3. Temperate Faunas, 204 

4. Tropical Faunas, , 205 

CHAPTER XXII. — Geographical Distribution of Mankind, . 207 

Exercises for Examination, 213 



PART SECOND. 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

CHAPTER I. — Preliminary Observations, 217 

§ 1. Political Geography defined, 217 

2. States of Society, 217 

3. Of Government, 218 

4. Of Religion, 219 

CHAPTER II. — Political Divisions of North America, 221 

§ 1. People and Countries, 221 

2. Danish. Possessions, 222 

3. French Possessions 223 

4. Russian Possessions, 223 

5. British America, 224 

Suggestions to the Teacher, 227 

CHAPTER III. — The United States op America, 230 

§ 1. General Observations, 230 

2. District of Columbia, 232 

3. Sections of the United States 233 

4-10. New England States, 234 

11-16. Middle States, 244 

17-26. Southern States, 253 

27-41. States of the Interior, 264 

42-47. Pacific States and Territories 277 

Exercises in Voyages and Travels 285 

CHAPTER IV. — Mexico, Central America, and West Indies,.. 286 
§ 1. Mexico, 286 

2. Central American States, 287 

3. West Indies, 288 

Exercises in Voyages and Travels, 289 

CHAPTER V. — Political Divisions of South America 290 

§ 1. Inhabitants and Countries, 290 

2. Venezuela, 290 

3. New Grenada 291 

4. Ecuador 291 

5. Peru 292 

6. Bolivia 292 

7. ChHe 293 

8. The Argentine Republic, 293 

9. Uruguay 294 



10 CONTENTS. 

10. Paraguay, 294 

11. Brazil 294 

12. Guiana, 295 

13. Patagonia, 295 

Exercises in Voyages and Travels, 295 

CHAPTEE VI. — Political Divisions of Europe, 296 

§ 1. Inhabitants and Countries, • 296 

2. Great Britain and Ireland, 297 

3. The Netherlands 299 

4. Belgium, 300 

5. Prance, 301 

6. Switzerland, 301 

i 7. Austria, 302 

8. Prussia, 303 

9. Germany, 304 

10. Spain, 305 

11. Portugal, 306 

12. Italy, 306 

13. Turkey, 308 

14. Greece, 309 

,15. The Ionian Islands, 310 

16. European Russia, 310 

17. Sweden, 311 

18. Norway, 312 

.19. Denmark, ; 313 

Exercises in Voyages and Travels, 313 

CHAPTER VII. — Political Divisions op Asia 314 

§ 1. Inhabitants and Countries. 2. Turkey in Asia, 314 

3. Arabia, 315 

4. Persia. 5. Iran. 6. Afghanistan, 316 

7. Beloochistan. 8. Hindostan, 317 

9. Island of Ceylon, 318 

. 10. Indo-China. 11. British Provinces, 319 

12. Malacca. 13. Chinese Empire. 14. China, 320 

15. Toorkistan. 16. Siberia. 17. Japan, 322 

Exercises m Voyages and Travels, 323 

CHAPTER VIII. — Political Divisions of Africa 324 

^ 1. Inhabitants and Countries. 2. North Africa, 324 

3. Eastern Africa. 4. South Africa, 327 

5. Western Africa, 328 

6. Central Africa. 7. African Islands, 329 



APPENDIX. 

Table of the Number of Geographical Miles in a Degree of Longi- 
tude, under each Parallel of Latitude, according to the spheroidal 

Shape of the Earth, 331 

Table of Heights of some Remarkable Points on the Earth, 332,-334 

♦' « Lakes and Inland Seas, 335 

«« «« Comparative Lengths of Rivers, 335 

Glossary, 336 



INDUCTIVE LESSONS 



INTENDED AS ORAL EXERCISES BY THE TEACHER. 



I. We often want to ascertain distances and heights, when neither 
foot-rule, yardstick, nor measuring tape is at hand. This deficiency in 
instruments may be suppKed, in some degree, in various ways. Take a 
carpenter's rule, or a yardstick that is graduated into feet and inches, and 
measure off on the school room floor, or elsewhere, a rod in length, mark- 
ing the extremes in some suitable manner. Then let each pupil deter- 
mine for himself, by pacing it oif, how many paces of his natural gait in. 
walking ai-e equal to one rod, or half a rod ; also how many feet and 
inches are equal to one of his paces. Let this be practised until it be- 
comes a ready means for measuring horizontal distances. Then ask one to 
ascertain the length of the school room, and another its width. Having 
previously determined for yourself the actual distances between a variety 
of objects or points in the vicinity of the school house, send out three or 
four pupils to pace off these distances, and report to you the result in 
rods, yards, and feet. 

n. To measure heights and depths, let each pupil determine his own 
height in feet and inches, and then mark an equal height on the waU or 
fence. Taking his stand at some distance from the wall, let him fix his 
eye upon the space indicating his height, till he becomes ^miliar with it 
as a measure of altitude. Prove its utility by requiring him to determine 
the height of certain objects. 

However well furnished yom- school room may be with surveyors* 
instruments, these ready means of measurement should not be neglected. 
It is well to teach young persons to be fertile in expedients. An anecdote 
may serve to show this. An engineer in the French service was unex- 
pectedly called upon by his superior officer to determine the width of 
a certain river. He had no instruments with him, and the result must 
be given without delay. His reputation, nay, his office, was involved in 

(11) 



12 INDUCTIVE LESSONS. 

the dilemma. "Without the least pertiirbation of mamier, he took his 
stand on the river's banlc, carefully adjusted the fore-point of his chapeau 
in front of his left eye, and with this as his Kne of direction, he observed 
where the point of sight would fall on the opposite bank. Then keeping 
his head and body rigidly fixed, and making his left heel a centre of 
motion, he turned a quarter roimd ; and noticing where that point of 
sight fell on his own side of the river, he marched up to it, counting his 
paces, and gave the width of the river. 

HE. "We will now suppose that the learners are prepared to take a tour 
of survey. Let the scene of their first exploration be the school room. 
Select some object for a starting point, — your own desk, for example, — 
and ask, " How far is my desk from the nearest wall ? " Let several 
measure the distance. Li like manner determine the position of various 
other objects in the room, both with relation to your desk and to each 
other. Now inquire, " If I wish to make a picture or groimd plan of our 
school room, so as to present each object and part in its natural size, how 
large a sheet of paper will be necessary ? " They answer, " As large as 
the school room floor." " Right ; but this is impracticable. I want to 
draw it on our blackboard, which, you see, is very much smaller in surfece : 
how can it be done ? " Some one answers, " By making the picture of 
each object smaller." " Very well : but in order to preserve a just pro- 
portion in the parts of the picture, it will be necessary to fix upon a scale 
of measurement. Let us take, as the unit of a scale, one inch to a foot. 
I win divide this horizontal line" (drawing it on the board) "into 
twenty-four or thirty-six inches, to represent twenty-four or thirty-six 
feet. Next, let this figure " (drawing it by the scale) " represent the out- 
line of the school room floor." Having progressed thus far, direct some 
member of the class to take the crayon, and say, " Locate on the plan, and 
that by actual measurement, the teacher's desk, the table, the stove, or 
the door." Give each member of the class a chance to do something 
upon it. When completed, question them as to the details of the plan, 
to ascertain how far its purpose is understood. For example, (pointing to 
the location of the teacher's desk on the plan,) ask, " "What is this ? " 
" Yom- desk." " Why, no. This " (putting your hand on the desk itself) 
« is my desk." Some will then say, " It is a picture of your desk." " Yes ; 
but my desk is very much larger than the picture ; is it not ? " " It is ; 
but the picture is made small because the blackboard is not large enough 
for one of natural size." Pointing to the whole plan, — " Now, if you 
should meet with this or a similar picture when you are at home or 
elsewhere, of what would it remind you ? " " Our school room." 
" Would you think of the room and its furniture as being small, like the 



INDUCTIVE LESSONS. 13 

picture?" "No, sir." "Why not?" "Because we know that it is 
much larger." This dialogue may be pursued further if desirable. 

Now, as a practical application of this lesson, each one of the class 
should be required to make a plan (on paper) of some room in his own 
home, to be brought in for examination. 

rV. The next lesson should embrace a wider field of observation. For 
this pm-pose, select some spot of twenty or thirty rods square. One 
having a variety of natural objects, as tree, rock, brook, or pond, would 
be preferable. Take the south side of the proposed field as a base line, 
and fix upon some point or object for the first station, or starting point, 
to which all others within the intended limits shall be referred. Let each 
pupil be provided with a memorandum book and pencil for taking " field 
notes." 

Select the points for survey, and direct the pupils, each in turn, in 
pacing oft* the distances, and noting them properly in their field books. 
A measm-ement with a surveyor's chain should also be taken as a standard 
for determining the correctness of the measures by pacing. 

On returning to the school room, let the class proceed to map out on 
the blackboard a plan of the survey from their notes. Fix upon some 
convenient scale of measm-ement by which to project the plan, and let all 
be done by the pupils, requiring each to do something, to prove that he 
knows something. 

V. As another step in these preliminary exercises, place before the 
class a map of some place which they have not seen, but which is familiar 
to yom-self. By questions and descriptions endeavor to awaken in their 
minds just ideas of the real scene. 

Next, take a map of the township in which the school is situated, and 
beginning with the school house, lead the class to a right conception of 
the bearing and distance of the several parts of the town from the school 
house, so that, as they are sitting at their desks, they can point towards 
any place in town which you may mention. 

An acquaintance with the town becomes the just basis for an acquaint- 
ance with the county, and the comity with the state. Encourage the 
pupils in making plans and maps of their own surveys. 

VI. Questions. — What towns he next north, south, east, or west of 
this town? What other towns adjoin this town? Pomt towards each 
of the neighboring towns. K either of the neighboring towns does not 
join ours, by what are they separated ? Is this a large or a small town? 
Are there any larger ones in this state ? Is this town situated on high 
or low kind ? In what county is it ? Name the adjoining counties. In 
what state is our county ? In what part of the state ? How far, and in 

2 



14 



INDUCTIVE LESSONS. 



what direction are we jfrom the capital of this state ? Do you know why 
it is called the capital ? Are there any hills or mountains near us ? Any 
Yalleys or plains ? Any bodies of water ? Are there any highlands in 
our state ? If so, in what part of it ? Describe them. What rivers has 
it ? What lakes ? What bays, capes, or islands ? Point towards each 
one, as you name it. If you wished to go to sea, what course would you 
take ? K you wanted to travel farther inland, what would be your direc- 
tion ? Would you be ascending or descending ? Why ? 

By such exercises as these, adapted in each case to the peculiarities of 
location, the teacher should prepare his pupils for the pursuit of this 
study. 



KEY TO THE SOUNDS OF THE MARKED LETTERS. 



VOWELS. 



1. 


Fate, 


Mete, Piue, 


Note, 


Cube, 


Type, 


2. 


mt, 


Met, Pin, 


Not, 


Tub, 


Crystal, 


3. 


-Eire, 


ThSre, Marine, 


Move, 


Pull, 


Myrrh. 


4. 


Far, 


Her, Bird, 


Nor, 


Fur, 




5. 


F&st, 


Brier. Rujn. 


S6n, 


Eiile, 


Bon. 


6. 


F^l, 




Actgr. 


Sulphur. 


Bbdnd. 


7. 


Li?r. 




, 




T8<^n. 






CONSONANTS. 










9 soft -— a9id. 


i soft — giant, ^tenoa. 








shard — ghasm. 


ghard- 


give, Bergen. 








au — in French, 


....like 


— Ilrtwte. 








eau— " " 


" 


— Bordemix. 








au — « Ger. It. Sp. Port., " bw 


— Jimgii-au. 








ei, ey — " German, 


" I 


— Leipsic. 








j _ « French, 


" zh 


— Dijon. 








j — « Spanish, 


« h 


— Juan. 








j — " other languages 


, " y 


— Jungfrau. 








X — " Spanish, 


" h 


— Xalapa. 








zz— « Italian, 


« ts 


— Tacazze. 





PART FIRST. 

ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



CHAPTER I. 

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 



*' O Lord, how manifold are thy works ! in wisdom hast thou made them all . 
the earth is full of thy riches." — Ps. civ. 24. 

1. We read, in the Sacred Scriptures, that " In the begin- 
ning God created the heavens and the earth ; " and that the 
earth, at first, was without form, and void ; and darkness was 
upon the face of the deep. And God caused the waters to 
be gathered together unto one place, and the diy land to ap- 
pear. He set lights in the firmament of heaven, to divide 
the day from the night, to give light upon the earth, and to 
serve for signs, and for seasons, and for days, ^nd for years. 
He caused the earth to bring forth grass, and herbs, and trees ; 
and created the fishes of the sea, the fowls of the air, the 
beasts of the field, the cattle, and every thing that creepeth 
upon the earth. And last of all, he created man, in his own 
image. " Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and 
all the host of them." 

2. At the present time, besides the myriads of plants and 
of the lower orders of animals, the earth is estimated to con- 
tain more than a thousand millions of human beings, scattered 
over its surface, divided into races, nations, and tribes, differ- 
ing in external appearance, character, language, government, 
and religion. 

3. A knowledge of the form and dimensions of the earth 
constitutes a most important element in the science of geog- 

Analtsis. 1. Bible account of the creation. — 2. Present condition of the 
earth. — 3. Important element in the study of geography. Of first impres- 

(15) 



16 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

raphy. The first impressions of our senses are insufficient 
to give us a correct idea of the figure of the earth. To a 
spectator placed on an open plain, it seems to present the 
appearance of a fiat or plane surface, equally extended in 
every direction, and terminated by a hue in which the heavens 
seem to touch and rest upon it like a great dome. 

4. It has long been known, however, that the form of the 
earth is that of a sphere or globe. Standing upon the sea- 
shore, we may observe the surface of the ocean terminated 
by a clear, well-defined line, or offing, as it is called, which is 
the visible horizon. If we embark in a vessel, and sail out 
of sight of the land, this offing will extend in a circle around 
ns, of which our station in the vessel forms the centre. The 
appearance of this visible horizon, or sea offing, is owing to 
the convexity of the earth's surface. 

5. This fact is exhibited by a vessel going from the shore 
and sailing beyond our visible horizon. The whole is visible 
till it reaches this water line. Beyond this, though the masts 
and sails still remain in sight, the hull of the ship is below 
the horizon. If the ship proceed a little farther, the lower 
sails disappear, and at length the whole is lost to view. 




8. There are other proofs of the globular form of the earth 
-~ the daily apparent course of the sun from east to west ; 
the constantly changing appearance of the starry heavens, to 
a person going from north to south, or from south to north ; 
and the circular shadov/ of the earth on the moon in an 
eclipse. 

7. A navigator, whose vessel continues to sail in the same 
general direction, (merely deviating from it so far as the 
intervening land renders necessary,) will eventually arrive 
at the place from which he set out. This practical proof of 

sions. — 4. Form of the oarth. The offing ; to what owing ? — 5. Proof of 
the convexity of the earth's siurface. — 6. Other proofs. — 7- Proof by circum- 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 17 

the roundness of the earth was first accomplished by Ferdi- 
nand Magellan, who sailed from Spain in the year 1519, and 
whose vessel, by a continued westerly course, after an ab- 
sence of about three years, arrived at the port from whence 
it started. 

8. The mountains and valleys, the various elevations and 
depressions of the land surface, compared with the whole 
magnitude and form of the earth, are far less in proportion 
than the roughness on the rind of an orange. The highest 
mountain in the world,* if represented on a globe of eighteen 
inches diameter, would be less than the eightieth part of an 
inch in height. 

9. Physical Geography treats of the earth in its natural 
condition, drawing our attention to the diversities of its sur- 
face, as composed of land and water, of mountains, plains, 
and valleys ; the phenomena of its atmosphere and oceans ; 
with the distribution of plants, animals, and man over its 
surface. Physical geography may therefore be regarded as 
the foundation of the natural sciences, underlying them all, 
and supplying their materials for observation and study. 

10. The earth is regarded as a solid body, regularly in- 
creasing in hardness, or density, from the surface towards its 
centre. Its surface, or crust, consists of a great variety of 
substances of different densities, some of which occur in 
shapeless masses ; others are disposed in regular layers, or 
strata, either horizontal or inclined. 

11. Man has penetrated but a very little way into the 
earth, by digging wells, or by mining; but, by reasoning 
from the inclination of the strata at or near the surface, and 
from other circumstances, he has obtained a tolerably accu- 
rate idea of its structure, to the depth of about ten miles. 

12. The various forms, and the relative positions of the 
land and water surfaces, though apparently characterized 
by great irregularity, are not the res^ult of mere chance or 
accident, but were planned and designed by the almighty 
Architect of the universe, to act in harmony. 

" All are but parts of one stupendous whole, 
Whose body nature is, and God the soul." 

* Mount Kunchinginga, in Asia, 28,178 feet, or over five miles. 

navigation. Who first gave this proof ? — 8. Proportionate magnitude of 
mountains, &c. The highest mountain. — 9. Definition of physical geography, 
— 10. The earth, how regarded ? Condition of its crust. — 11. Knowledge of 
its structure. — 12. Remark on the forms and relative positions of the land 
and water. Quotation. What has God established and caused ? ' 
2* 



18 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

He has established the proportions between the land and 
water, and the desert, just as they are, and has made the 
capacity of the air to circulate heat and moisture just what 
it is, that each and all may do their work in obedience to 
law, and in subservience to order. He "measured the 
waters in the hollow of his hand, and comprehended the 
dust in a measure, and weighed the mountains in settles, and 
the hills in a balance." 



CHAPTEB II. 

THE CONTOURS OF LAND AND WATER. 



" The sea is his, and he made it ; and his hands formed the dry land." — 
P$. xcv. 5. 

13. The best representation of the earth, as a whole, is an 
artificial terrestrial globe, which shows on its surface a con- 
tour' or outline of the various geographical regions, the conti- 
nents, the peninsulas, and the islands, in their relative situa- 
tions. A map of the world displays the hemispheres on a 
plane surface. 

14. If we divide the globe into hemispheres by the merid- 
ian of Ferro, — one of the Canary Islands, — we shall per- 
ceive that land predommates in the eastern hemisphere, and 
water in the western. Li the hemispheres divided by the 
equator, the land is more extensive in the northern than in 
the southern. 

15. Another division of the globe into hemispheres, by- 
taking London, in England, as the centre of the northern 
one, and Antip'odes Islands, south-east of New Zealand, as 
the centre of the southern, will exhibit the most extensive 
important masses of land in the former, which may be called 
the land hemisphere, and in the latter the greatest collec- 
tions of water, which is the water hemisphere. 

16. Hence we find that the land and water on the surface 
of the globe are very unequally distributed, the water occu- 
pying nearly three fourths of the whole. 

17. The dry land appears in various detached portions in 
the midst of the oceans, and may be considered in two 
classes — Continents and Islands. 

18. A Continent is a portion of the earth's broken crust, 
which has been elevated from the bottom of the ocean to a 
certain height above its surface, presenting to view a large 

13. Best representation of the earth. — 14. Comparison of the eastern and 
western hemispheres. Of the northern and southern hemispheres. — 15. 
Of the land and water hemispheres. — 16. Distribution of land and water. — • 
17. Two classes of lands. — 18. Continent defined. IleUef. Contour. Rela- 

(19) 



20 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

body of irregular shape, limited in its outline by the sea. 
This elevation of the land above the level of the sea is 
called the relief, and the shape of its horizontal outline is 
the contour'. A few feet, more or less, of elevation above 
the level of the sea, would entirely change the outline. The 
physical position of a place, or its elevation in the atmos- 
phere above the level of *the sea, is an element of as much 
importance in regard to its climate, vegetation, and other 
circumstances, as its geographical position with regard to the 
equator. 

19. The Eastern HemisphepoE, or Old World, comprises 
four continents, viz., Asia, Europe, and Africa, which, being 
connected together, are commonly spoken of as the Great 
Eastern Continent ; and Australia, which lies detached. 

20. The Western Hemisphere, or New World, com- 
prises the two continents of North and South America, with 
the small division of Central America uniting them. The 
whole is called the Great Western Continent. 

21. The lands about the north pole are denominated the 
Arctic Regions, of which Greenland is the most extensive 
portion. 

22. A newly-discovered continent has been found to 
exist within the Antarctic circle. The honor of this dis- 
covery belongs to Commander Wilkes, of the United States 
Exploring Expedition, who first saw it on the 16th of January, 
1840. 

23. An Island is a body of land less than a continent, 
and is entirely surrounded by water. The innumerable 
islands of the oceans and seas may be classed under two 
heads, viz., Continental, and Pela'gic. 

24. Continental islands are long in* proportion to their 
breadth, and follow each other in succession aloug the mar- 
gin of the continents, as if they had been formed during the 
elevation of the main land, or had afterwards been separated 
from it by the action of the sea, and still mark its ancient 
boundary. They generally run parallel to the maritime 
chains of mountains, and are mostly of the same structure. 

25. On the north-west coast of America there is a long 
chain of these islands, of which Vancouver's Island is the 
largest. Another range occurs along the west coast of 
Patago'nisi. Great Britain, with the IIeb''rides, Ork'ney, and 

tive importance of physical and geographical positions. — 19. Continents of 
the eastern hemisphere. — 20. Continents of the western hemisphere. — 
21. The Arctic regions. — 22. The Antarctic regions. — 23. Define an island. 
Classes of islands. — 24. Of continental islands. — 25. Give exainxjles.— • 



THE CONTOURS OF LAND AND WATER. 



21 



Shetland Islands, are remarkable instances of continental 
islands. Another vast chain of continental islands extends 
along the coast of Asia, from Formd'sa to Kamtchat'ka. 

26. Pela'gic islands have risen from the bed of the ocean, 
independently of the continents, and are generally far from 
the main land. 

27. They are mostly volcanic, altogether or in part ; often 
very lofty ; sometimes single, and frequently in groups. 

28. In the Atlantic, the Islands of Tristan' d'Actln'ha, St. 
Hele'na, Ascension, and Madei'ra are of volcanic origin. 
The Cape Verd', Cana'ries, and Azores' have each active 
volcanoes. 

29. It is supposed that the great circuit of islands begin- 
ning with New Zealand, and extending through Nor'folk, 
New Caledo'nia, New Heb'rides, SoFomon's, New Brit'ain, 
New Han'over, New Ii-eland, Louisiade', and New Guin'ea 
once formed the eastern and northren boundary of the Aus- 
tralian continent ; and that the whole Indian Arghipelago is 
but the wreck of a continent which has been ingulfed by the 
ocean. 

30. All the smaller tropical pela'gic islands, in the Pacific 
and Indian Oceans, are either of volcanic or cor'alline for- 
mation, except New Caledonia and the Sey5helles'. 

31. The islands of cor'alline formation are the work of 
cor'al insects, which exist in incal- 
culable numbers, chiefly in the 
tropical parts of the Indian and 
Pacific Oceans. 

32. These insects cannot five if 
left dry, nor at a greater depth than 
one hundred and fifty to one hun- 
dred and eighty feet; hence all 
the cor'al above the surface of the 
water is dead, and that below 
the depth mentioned is also dead. 
Circular reefs of cor'al formation 
rising out of the sea and enclosing 
a lagoon', are called Atolls'. 

33. Those parts of a continent 
running out into the sea consider- 
ably beyond the general coast line 
are called Peninsulas, being almost surrounded by water, 

26. Of pelagic islands. — 27. Their origin and occurrence. — 28. Examples. — 
29. Supposition concerning the Australian islands. — 30. Formation of the 
smaller tropical pelagic islands. — 31. Of coral insects. -- 32. Limit of their 




22 



ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



as Italy, Spain, Florida. The peninsular form is a very 
common feature of the land. 





34. A narrow neck of land connecting two large masses is 
denominated an Isthmus, as the Isthmus of Panama', which 
unites North and South America. 

35. The extremities of peninsulas, or any points of land 
projecting beyond the coast line into the sea, are variously 
named capes, promontories, points, and headlands. 



operations. Atolls. — 33. Peninsulas. — 34. Isthmus. — 35. Of projections 
beyond the coast line. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE RELIEFS OF THE LAND SURFACE. 

♦* "Whatsoever the Lord pleased, that did he in heaven, and in the earth, in 
the seas, and in all deep places." — Ps. cxxxv. 6. 

36. The forms of relief on the globe are varied to an 
almost infinite extent ; yet they may be classified, according 
to their most prominent features, into mountains, or high- 
lands ; plateaus, or table lands ; and plains, or lowlands. 

37. Mountains are vast elevations of land, either con- 
nected in lines or ranges distributed over the surface, and on 
the borders of plains and plateaus, or scattered in isolated 
groups, or forming the centre or knot of several chains. 



Ch.ai2i of ICoTiii-taiiig 




38. In a system of mountains the central ridge has usu- 
ally the boldest development and the highest elevation. 
The highest part of a range is called the crest. 

39. From its common occurrence it seems to be a general 



36 Forms of relief. — 37. Mountains. — 38. The crest. — 39. General la-w 

(23) 



24 



ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



law for chains of mountains to have very steep decHvities 
on one side, and very gradual slopes on the other. The 
An'des present a steeper face towards the Pacific Ocean 
than towards the main land of America ; and generally the 
steepest declivity is towards the nearest sea. 

40. Chains of mountains, though making many curves and 
angles, generally follow the direction of the greatest length 
of the continent or district in which they are situated. 

41. Mountains which reach the height of 10,000 feet and 
upwards are of the first class ; those ranging between 4000 
and 10,000 feet are of the second class ; those varying from 
2000 to 4000 feet are of the third class ; and the inferior ele- 
vations are styled hills and slopes. 

42. Parallel chains having the same general direction, 
though separated by valleys, straits, or seas, resemble each 
other in geological formation; as the Atlas and Spanish 
mountains. 

43. Terraces are successive steps of descent from high- 
lands to lowlands. A Watershed is the sloping of the land 
in several directions, determining the course of the flowing 
waters. The space enclosed by a watershed is called a 
Basin, the lowest part of which is generally occupied by a 
lake, or traversed by a river. 



JFoiarLS of 2ito-cnxtaigaS 



G-laoieDt» 







Cohvnma-n 



for mountain chains. Relation of the slopes to the ocean. — 40. Direction of 
mountain chains. — 4L Height of first class mountains; second class; third 
class. Inferior elevations. — ■ 42. Resemblance of parallel chains. — 43. Ter- 



THE RELIEFS OF THE LAND SURFACE. 



25 









"^mM^s^^^ 



44. Mountain forms differ in appearance, and are described 
as being dome-shaped, volcanic, peaked, ser'rated, (jagged 
like a saw; hence the Spanish name sierra,) or colum'nar. 
This difference is owing to their geological structure. 

45. Plateaus. An extensive mass of elevated land, with 
comparatively level surfaces, is called a plateau, or table 
land. It may have various undulations of hill and vale, be 
traversed by mountain ridges, and serve as a platform for 
lofty peaks ; but its prevailing character is that of a highly- 
raised region on which there is a cojisiderable area of plain 
surface ; the whole presenting either gradual slopes, or abrupt 
acclivities, and sometimes terrace-shaped sides, to the adjoin- 
ing lowlands. 

46. Plains are distinguished from table lands by being 
very little elevated above 
the sea, in some instances 
even descending below it. 
The term is applied to an 
extent of country general- 
ly level as compared with 
mountainous districts, though 
the surface may be undulat- 
ed, studded with low hills, 
traversed by valleys, or in- 
tersected by deep ravines. 
Plains constitute by far the 
greater portion of the earth's 
surface, and are the sites of 
its highest culture, greatest 
cities, and most numerous 
population. 

47. Plains, though pos- 
sessing certain features in 
common, present some pe- 
culiarities, as follows : — 

48. Landes, or Heaths. 
These occupy a large por- 
tion of the north of Ger- 
many and the south-west 
of France. They are sandy 
tracts, sometimes wholly 
bare, or clothed with heath 
and pines, interspersed with fens and marshes.. 

races. Watershed. Basin. — 44. Varieties of mountain forms. — 45. Pla 
teaus; their prevailing character. — 46. Of plains ; extent. — 47, 48. Peculi 
3 




26 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

49. Steppes. The Russian term steppe is applied to the 
extensive plains which occupy South-eastern Europe and 
North-western Asia. These have no uniform character, ex- 
cept that of being great lowland levels. 

50. Deserts are tracts of bare sand, gravel, rocky slabs, 
and flinty stones, condemned to perpetual barrenness. De- 
pressions of varying extent occur in the midst of the deserts, 
called O'ases, where there are springs and wells, nourishing 
groves of date trees and grasses. 

51. LWnos. The plains of Venezuela and New Gre- 
na'da, in South America, are so called. In the wet season 
they are inundated for hundreds of square miles ; afterwards, 
when the waters have subsided, they are covered with a 
beautifully green verdure ; and in the dry season the grass 
crumbles into dust, the whole appearing like a desert. 

52. Sel'vas. The plains of the Amazon, in South Amer- 
ica, are covered with woods, interspersed with clear, grassy 
spaces and marsh lands. They comprise upwards of two 
million square miles, nearly one million of which is wood- 
land. 

53. Pam'pas. These form the third great division of South 
American lowlands, extending about eighteen hundred miles 
south from the selvas, and from the Atlantic to the Andes. 
They are treeless plains, covered with tall grass, thistles, 
&o., presenting also vast swamps and lagoons'. 

54. Savdn'nas, or Prdi'ries. These are apparently bound- 
less meadows, occupying vast tracts on both sides of the 
Mississippi, but principally on the west. They are described 
as undulating, or rolling, in the general aspect of their sur- 
faces. 

55. Valleys are of three kinds — principal, lateral, or 
transverse, and subordinate. Principal valleys are usually 
of large dimensions, enclosed between extensive parallel 
ranges of mountains. To this class belongs the Valais, or 
Valley of the Rhone. Lateral valleys are so called because 
they are situated among transverse branches of mountain 
ranges. Subordinate valleys are of smaller size, formed by 
the spurs of mountain ranges, or situated among hills. 

— Some valleys are basin-shaped, being surrounded by a 
girdle of mountains, with the exception of one small outlet, 
which allows the escape of the surplus waters. The beau- 
tiful valley of Cashmere' presents an example of a basin- 

arities. Landes. — 49. Steppes. — 50. Deserts. Oases. — ol. Llanos. — 52. 
Selvas. — 53. Pampas. — 54. Savannas, or prairies. — 5o. Three kinds of val- 
leys. Principal ; example ; lateral ; subordinate. Basin-shaped ; valleys ex- 



THE RELIEFS OF THE LAND SURFACE. 27 

shaped valley. When valleys are narrow and difficult of 
access, they are termed ravines, glens, dells, defiles, gorges, 
gullies, passes, or ports. These are frequent among steep 
mountains, and often present scenes of great beauty and 
grandeur. They usually form the routes by which moun- 
tain chains are crossed, and often form the beds of rivers. 
The " Notch " in the White Mountains of New Hampshire 
affords an instance, 

56. In high northern and southern latitudes, and at certain 
elevations in all latitudes, snow and ice occur on the surface 
of the globe as a permanent covering. 

57. The snows accumulated on the tops and steep declivi- 
ties of mountains are frequently precipitated, by their own 
weight, into the valleys below. These av'alanches often oc- 
casion great destruction in their course. 

58. Gla'ciers, masses of ice, or of ice, snow, and water, 
are remarkable appendages of the snow fields. They appear 
like frozen torrents hanging upon the sides of mountains, 
and extending from the higher summits into the lower val- 
leys. 

59. The size of gla'ciers sometimes amounts to fifteen 
or twenty miles in length, and three miles in breadth, the 
thickness at the lower portion varying from eighty to one 
hundred, or even two hundred feet. The front is melting, 
while above it accumulates and is consolidated ; hence it is 
moving along the ground, advancing down the mountain 
slope, faster or slower, according to the season and the de- 
gree of heat. 

60. Volcano. This is a term denoting a peculiar class 
of mountains emitting from their summits or sides melted 
mineral masses, with columns of flame, smoke, and ashes. 
Their general form is conical, with a hollow at the summit, 
called the crater, or cup. 

61. The volcanic mountains are either continuously active, 
or intermittent, or extinct. Strom'boli, one of the LTp'ari 
Islands, is an example of the active ; Mount Etna, on the 
Island of Si'cily, the intermittent ; and the Isle of Pal'ma, 
one of the Cana'ries, the extinct, or third kind. 

62. Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions are undoubt- 
edly phases of the same phenomenon. Earthquakes are 
most abundant and violent in countries which surround or 
lie between volcanic districts. No phenomena are so terrible 

ample. Valleys when narrow and difficult of access. — 56. Permanent snow 
and ice. — 57. Avalanches. — 58. Glaciers. — 59. Their extent and progress. — 
60. Volcano; general form, —61. Classes and examples. — 62. Earthquakes; 



28 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

in their effects, or so fatal to man. They commence without 
the slightest warning ; the shocks follow in quick succession, 
the first or second being usually the most tremendous ; and 
almost at the same instant a vast extent of country is in- 
volved in disaster from these movements. 

63. The phenomena of earthquakes comprise the perma- 
nent displacement of large areas of land by elevation and 
depression, the opening of extensive fissures, great oceanic 
waves, and a train of varying incidents dependent upon the 
situations and strength of the shocks. 



AN OUTLINE OF GEOLOGY. 

Geology treats of the nature and arrangement of the various rocks 
and other substances at or near the surface of the earth. The term rock 
includes the loose sands, claj^s, and gravels, as well as the more compact 
and solid portions of the globe. 

An examination of the earth's crust shows us that it is formed of nu- 
merous beds, or strata, of rocks ; some of limestone, some of sandstone, 
some of clay ; some very hard, others soft and crumbling, and easily worn 
away by the action of running streams, or the waves of the ocean. The 
greater number of these beds contain organic remains^ that is, the re- 
mains of animals and plants, which are termed fossils. Among these the 
most numerous are the remains of marine animals. In some instances 
shells and corals occur in such abundance as to form the principal part of 
extensive beds. Every part of the earth exhibits similar, or nearly simi- 
lar, formations ; and not only are marine fossils met with in the interior 
of continents, and at great elevations above the sea, but a vast variety of 
})lants, corals, shells, fish, re}) tiles, &c., are fomid in a fossil state of species 
unlHie any existing at the present time. 

Besides rocks, we meet v/ith earthy formations on the surface. These 
include such loose materials as are worn away from rocks, and form, when 
combined with decayed animal and vegetable matter, the soil of meadow 
and arable lands, and, chiefly, all beds which are not hardened. Water - 
worn pebbles, that is, fragments of rock, rounded by friction and the ac- 
tion of water, are of frequent occurrence, forming gravel in the beds of 
rivers, and shingles on the sea shore. When these rounded fragments 
are of very large size they are termed boulders. 

When rounded pebbles become cemented together by lime, or any 
other material, so as to form a solid rock, the mass is called conglomerate, 
and sometimes pudding stone. Angular fragments thus cemented are 
known by the name of hrecgia. 

where common. Characteristics. — 63. What do the phenomena of earth- 
quakes comprise ? 



AJI OUTLINE OP GEOLOGY. 29 

Of the fifty-four elementary or simple substances, that is, those which 
are incapable of further analysis, sixteen, by their various combinations, 
form nearly the whole of the matter composing the globe. These are 
arranged in three classes, as follows, the first in each class being the most 
abundant: Six metalloids, or bases. of the earths and alkalies — silicum, 
aluminum, potassium, sodium, magnesium, and calcium. Two metals 
proper — iron and manganese. Eight non-metallic substances — oxygen, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, chlorine, fluorine, and phosphorus. 
These elementary substances are rarely found separate in nature, but are 
combined with each other, forming the simple minerals, of which eight or 
nine constitute the great mass of all known rocks : quartz, felspar, mica, 
hornblende, carbonate of hme, talc, chlorite, augite, and serpentine. 

Sometimes the simple minerals exist in large, independent masses, as 
quartz and carbonate of hme ; but in general two, three, or four are 
united to form a rock ; thus quartz, felspar, and mica constitute the gran- 
ite rock. 

The beds or layers of rock which compose the crust of the globe are of 
two kinds : — 

1. The Massive or unstratified rocks, which underlie all the others, or 
have sometimes been forced up through them. They appear to have been 
once in a melted state, and on cooHng at the surface, formed the original 
crust of the globe. Granite, porphyry, basalt, and lava belong to this 
division. 

2. The Sedimentary or stratified rocks, which have been formed by 
successive deposits in water. These sediments have been derived partly 
from the disintegration of the older rocks, and partly from the decay of 
plants and animals. They include limestones, sandstones, slates, and 
marls. 

These divisions are usually arranged by the geologist into four great 
classes, namely : plutonic, volcanic, metamorphic, and aqueous, so named 
from the manner in which they have been produced. 

Plutonic eocks consist of masses which, while in a melted state, were 
gradually cooled and consolidated at an immense depth, under enormous 
pressure, and then upheaved by the elastic force of internal heat. Gran- 
ite, and its A'arieties, with some por'phyries, belong to this class. They 
contain no organic remains, that is, petrifactions of vegetables or animals. 

Volcanic eocks are the produce of ancient volcanic eruptions. They 
were mainly consoHdated at or near the surface of the earth, with a less 
degree of pressm*e than the plutonic — a circumstance that has a marked 
effect upon their appearance and structure. They have also a more di- 
versified character, the volcanic fire having melted difierent kinds of stra'ta, 
in its eruptions. The basalts', greenstone, tra'chyte, and various por'- 
phyries belong to this class. They are frequently called " trap rocks," 
because of their frequent arrangements in the form of steps. They have 
no organic remains. 

Metamoephic eocks are of sedimentary origin, but haxing been in 
contact with the plutonic while in a melted state, they have been, altered 
in their texture, and crystallized by the action of the intense heat. The 
gneiss, mlca-schist, and part of the clay-slate systems belong to this class. 
They have no organic remains. 

Aqueous eocks are those which are entirely due to the action of water, 
3# 



30 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

either having been deposited as mere sediment by its mechanical agency, 
or as chemical precij)itates from solution. Formations of this class con- 
stitute by far the greater portion of the crust of the globe. They all con- 
tain organic matters, and form ten principal subdivisions or groups, as 
follows : — 

1. The Lower Silurian, which is a very extensive formation, composed 
of various Hmestones and sandstones. 

2. The Upper Silurian. It is also extensive, and exists in different 
parts of America, Europe, and Africa. 

3. The Devonian, sometimes called the old red sandstone, occurs in 
Russia, England, Scotland, and North America. 

4. Carboniferous system ; embracing the mountain limestone and the 
coal measures. It abounds in Great Britain and the United States, and 
is fomid in France, Belgium, Saxony, Bohe'mia, Westpha'lia, on the 
north of the Carpa'thians, in Russia, Syria, the basin of the Indus, in 
China, and Australia. 

5. The Trias, or Saliferous formation ; consisting of variously-colored 
marls, sandstones, and magnesian Hmestones, ynth. masses of rock salt. It 
appears in midland England, central Europe, and composes many of the 
river valleys of the United States. 

6. Oolit'ic system; a collection of clays and limestones of various 
shades, the latter containing smaU calcareous globules, resembling the 
eggs of a fish — hence the name 6'olite. It appears in England, and vari- 
ous parts of Europe. 

7. Cretd'ceous system ; comprising green sands, chalk marl, and 
chalk, with nodules of flints. It is found in the eastern and southern 
counties of England, spreads over wide areas of France and Germany, and 
occurs in North America. 

8. The Lower Tertiary, or Eocene, very abundant in the Southern 
United States ; and the coarse limestone of Paris, and the London clay in 
England, belong to it. 

9. The Upper Tertiary, or Miocene, and Pleiocene. This is also found 
in the United States, in South America, and in Southern Europe. 

10. The Drift, forming the most superficial deposits, and extending 
over a large portion of the northern countries of both continents. 

Each formation represents an immense period of time, during which the 
earth was inhabited by successive races of animals and plants, whose re- 
mains are often found, in their natural position, in the places where they 
lived and died, not scattered at random, though sometimes mixed together 
by cmrrents of water, or other influences, subsequent to the time of their 
interment. From the manner in which the remains of various species are 
found associated in the rock, it is easy to determine whether the animals to 
Avhich these remains belonged lived in the water or on land, on the beach 
or in the depths of the ocean, in a warm or in a cold cHmate. 

The plutonic and volcanic rocks exhibit generally irregular masses, with- 
out di\isional structure, but broken by fissures, the summits being dome- 
shaped, globular, or deeply serrated ridges. 

The metamorphic and aqueous rocks, on the contrary, are disposed in 
the form of beds, layers, or strata, both horizontal and incHned at all an- 
gles to the horizon. The plains and low portions of the earth are occupied 
almost imiversally by stratified rocks. They appear also in elevated dis- 



AN OUTLINE OF GEOLOGY. 31 

tricts, and on the flanks of mountainons regions. The strata vary in 
thickness from a few inches to many yards. 

If the rocks of deposition had been formed in quiet waters, and kept 
free from disturbing forces, the position of layers would have been uni- 
formly horizontal. But this has not been the case, and consequently 
layers are generally found to dip towards some point of the horizon. 
They have sometimes been lifted into a vertical position, or variously 
curved and contorted by the disturbing force. 

Geology, then, has estabhshed this &ct, that at different periods of ac- 
tion among the subterranean fires, the unstratified masses wmch constitute 
the basis of the earth's crust have been repeatedly forced through and 
into the stratified formations, causing their various dislocations, their dis- 
turbed and inclined positions, their upheaval above the deep in which they 
were deposited, and frequent elevation along the flanks and on the crests 
of high mountain ranges. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE WATER SURFACE OF THE EARTH. 

" All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea is not full ; unto the place from 
whence the rivers come, thither they return again." — Ecd. i. 7. 

64. Springs. The vapor which is constantly rising from 
water surfaces, and from wet or moist land, ascends into the 
atmosphere till it is condensed by cold into clouds, which 
again restore it to the earth in the forms of rain, hail, and 
snow. 

65. Part of the moisture thus restored to the earth rises 
again in vapor ; part supplies the wants of animal and vege- 
table life ; a portion is carried off by the river streams, and 
the remaining part penetrates the porous soils till it reaches 
an impervious rock or clay bed, where it accumulates in vast 
reservoirs, from which it issues in springs at the surface of 
the ground, becoming the sources of rivers and lakes. 

66. All spring waters contain some solid matter in solution, 
either saline or mineral: when this is in excess, they are 
called mineral springs. (See Ghssary.) 

67. Thermal or hot springs occur in almost every region 
of the globe. The boiling springs of Iceland are well known. 
The Great Gey'ser shoots up vast columns of boiling water 
to the height of ninety or one hundred feet. 

68. Rivers frequently have their origin in lakes which 
they discharge into the sea. In other instances they spring 
from small elevations in the plains, from never-failing sources 
in the mountains, as alpine lakes, melted glacial ice and 
snow ; but the chief sources of the mightiest rivers are the 
ice-clad mountains of high table lands. These perpetual 
storehouses of the waters send their streams to refresh the 
l^lains, and to afford a highway between the nations. 

09. A river basin includes, besides the bed actually occu- 

64. Sprmgs. Vapor. Clouds. Rain. Hail. Snow. — 65. Disposition of the 
moisture which falls to the earth. — &Q. Mineral springs. — 67. Thermal springs. 
— 08. Origin of rivers. — 69. Extent of river basin. — 70. The dividing line of 

(32) 



THE WATER SURFACE OP THE EARTH. 33 

pied by the water, the whole of the declivities from which its 
tributaries descend. 

70. The country which divides one basin from another is 
called the watershed. This is sometimes a lofty range 
of mountains ; but very commonly a watershed has no great 
elevation, a slight convexity being sufficient to produce dis- 
tinct systems of drainage. 

71. Where the watersheds are low, rivers are often united, 
in civilized countries, by canals, promoting navigation. 

72. The form of the channel, the slope of the bed, and the 
volume of water, are the elements upon which the velocity 
of rivers depends. 

73. A slope of one foot in two hundred in the bed of a 
river renders it unnavigable ; a greater inclination produces 
a rapid ; and one still greater, approaching the perpendicular, 
a cataract. Every river carries down mud, sand, or gravel, 
to the sea. The Ganges brings more than 700,000 cubic feet 
of mud every hour; the Hoang-Ho, in China, 2,000,000, and 
the Mississippi still more. The solid matter thus brought 
down and deposited by streams is called alluvium by geolo- 
gists. 

74. Rivers depend for their magnitude upon various ele- 
ments, as the length of their course, the extent of their 
basins, the rain-producing character of the climate, and con- 
nection with snow-clad mountains. 

75. An inlet of the sea connected with the mouth of a 
river is called a Firth, or Estuary. They are common in 
Scotland. 

76. The coasts of -Norway, Greenland, Iceland, and the 
west coast of Patagonia and Chile, are rent into chasms, or 
fiords, which are either partly or entirely filled by arms of the 
sea. 

77. Lakes. The water of lakes is derived either from 
rivers or from springs. Small lakes occur in mountain 
passes, formed by water which runs into them from the sur- 
rounding peaks. Large lakes are common on table lands 
and in valleys of mountainous countries ; but the largest 
are on extensive plains. 

78. Four classes may be made of lakes, founded upon 
their physical differences : — 

. a. Those which have no apparent affluents, or outlets. 

one basin from another. — 71. Means of uniting rivers under certain cii-cum- 
stances. — 72. Velocity of current depending on Avhat ? — 73. Degrees of slope. 
Alluvium. — 74. Magnitude of rivers depend on what ? — 75. Firth or estuary. 
— 76. Fiords. — 77. Formation of lakes. — 78. Number of classes. 1st class. 



34 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

These are generally small, but, being fed by subterraneous 
springs, are more permanent than larger lakes. 

b. Those which have an outlet without any visible affluents. 

c. Those which receive affluents without having any visible 
outlets. These are common in Asia : the most remarkable 
examples are the Cas'pian, the Ir'al, and the Dead Sea. 

d. Those which have both affluents and an outlet. Among 
the fresh-water lakes these are the largest and most mmier- 
ous ; as the Great Lakes of North America, Lado'ga in 
Europe, Bai'kal in Asia, and Tchad in Africa. 

79. Lakes are not subject to tides, and many of them 
never freeze, on account of their great depth. 

80. The highest lakes are the Sirikol', in Central Asia, 
15,600 feet above the level of the sea ; Mansarowar', in Tib'et, 
15,256 feet; Lake Titica'ca, in South America, 12,846 feet; 
Lake Triib, in Switzerland, 7200 feet ; and Lake Superior, 
in America, 672 feet elevation. There are some remarkable 
bodies of water that are below the level of the ocean. The 
Caspian Sea is 83 feet, Lake of Tibe'rias 329 feet, and the 
Dead Sea 1312 feet lower, than the surface of the Mediter- 
ranean. 

81. Oceans. The vast expanse of waters which surround 
the continental and island masses is, in a general sense, de- 
nominated the sea ; but it is usually considered as divided 
into several great sections, or oceans, known as the Arctic, 
the Atlantic, the Lidian, the Pacific, and the Antarctic 
Oceans. 

82. Branches of the ocean extend- 
ing into the land are variously de- 
nominated seas, gulfs, bays, bights, 
or inlets. Passages which connect 
different bodies of water are called 
straits, channels, or sounds. 

83. The Arctic basin is limited by 
the northern shores of America, 
Europe, and Asia ; and, in the spaces 

between the continents, the Arctic 

circle is usually considered as the boundary. The chief 
branches of the Arctic Ocean are Baffin's Bay, the White 
Sea, Sea of Kar'a, Gulf of O'bi, and Behr'ing's Straits. 
84. The basin of the Atlantic lies between America on the 

2d class. 3d class. 4th class. — 79. Of tides in lakes. — 80. Examples of re- 
markable elevation and depression of lakes. — 81. Use of the term sea. The 
oceans. — 82. Branches of an ocean. Straits, &c. — 83, The Arctic Ocean. 
Branches of the Arctic. — 84. The Atlantic basin. Branches of the Atlantic. 




THE WATER SURFACE OF THE EARTH, 35 

• 

west, Europe and Africa on the east, and the polar circles on 
the north and south. The principal branches of the Atlantic 
are the BaFtic Sea, with its gulfs, the North Sea, the Medi- 
terranean and Black Seas, Gulf of GuTn'ea, the Caribbe'an 
Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Hudson's 
Bay. 

85. The basin of the Indian Ocean has for its boundaries 
Africa on the west, Persia and Hindostan' on the north, the 
Sun'da Isles and Australia on the east, and the Antarctic 
circle on the south. The chief branches of the Indian Ocean 
are the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf, and 
Bay of Bengal'. 

86. The basin of the Pacific is enclosed between America 
on the east, Asia and Australia on the west, the Aleu'tian 
Islands on the north, and the Antarctic circle on the south. 
The principal branches of the Pacific Ocean are the Chl'na 
Sea, Yellow Sea, Sea of Japrui', Sea of Okhotsk', Sea of 
Kamtchat'ka, Gulf of Califorliia, and Bay of Panama', The 
Antarctic basin embraces that portion of the southern seas 
which is circumscribed by the Antarctic circle. 

87. Tlie ocean bed exhibits inequahties similar to those 
which mark the surface of dry land — abrupt eminences, 
gentle slopes, and deep depressions. Off a low, level, and 
sandy shore the sea is, in general, shallow for a considerable 
distance, but very deep close to a bold, towering coast. 

88. There is at the bottom of the sea, between Cape 
Hace, in Newfoundland', and Cape Clear, in Ireland, a re- 
markable steppe, which is already known as the telegraphic 
j^lateau. It is proposed to open a telegraphic communica- 
tion between America and Europe, by laying the wires along 
this plateau from the eastern shores of JNew'foundland' to 
the western shores of Ireland. The great circle distance 
between these two shore lines is 1600 miles, and the sea 
along the route is probably noAvhere more than 10,000 feet 
deep. It was upon this i)lateau that Brooke's sounding- 
apparatus brought up its first trophies from the bottom of 
the sea, a depth of more than two miles. The specimens 
were examined by Professor Bailey, of West Point. He 
found them to be microscopic shells, without a particle of 
sand or gravel in them, and perfect in their forms. 

89. The water of wells, springs, rivers, marshes, and lakes 
is for the most part fresh ; but the ocean waters are salt. The 

— 85. Basin of the Indian Ocean. Branches. — 8G. Basin of the Pacific. 
Branches. The Antarctic basin. — 87- The ocean bed. Law of depth off shore. 

— 88. The "telegraphic plateau." Brooke's sounding apparatus. 89. Of fresh 



36 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRArHY. 

saline ingredients render sea water more dense than fresh 
water, and consequently more buoyant and better adapted 
for navigation. Fresh water freezes at a temperature of 32° ; 
salt water freezes at 28^°. 

90. The mean temperature of the ocean at the surface 
diminishes from within the tropics as the latitude increases, 
till, towards the poles, the sea is ice-bound. The line of 
greatest warmth at the surface does not coincide with the 
geographical equator, but runs on the north of it. 

91. The waters of the ocean exhibit various hues, which 
depend upon a variety of circumstances. Its general color 
is ultramarine blue ; but every gleam of sunshine, passing 
clouds, winds, shoals, and sand banks affect its tints. Par- 
ticular parts of the ocean show peculiar colors, which are 
occasioned by differently-colored animalcules. The sea is 
white in the Gulf of Gui'nea, and black amid the Maldive' 
Islands. Variously purple, red, and rose-colored waters occur 
in the higher parts of the Mediterranean, in the Vermilion 
Sea off California, the Red Sea, and in tracts along the coasts 
of Chile, Brazil', and Australia. Green water appears in 
the Persian Gulf, off the Arabian coast, and in connection 
with the deepest blue of the Arctic Ocean. 



Questions for Map Exercises on the Oceans and their 
Branches. 

92. Which are the principal branches of the Atlantic in the northern 
portion of North America ? 

AVhat are the two branches between North and South America ? 

What passages lead into each ? 

AVhat branches has Baffin's Bay ? Hud'son's Bay ? The Gulf of 
Mexico ? The Caribbe'an Sea ? 

Name the principal branches of the Atlantic on the eastern coast of 
the United States. Branches on the coast of South America. 

Name the chief bi-anches of the Atlantic which penetrate Europe and 
Africa. 

What passages lead into each ? 

What branches has the Bal'tic Sea ? The North Sea ? The Irish Sea ? 

What are the northern branches of the Mediterranean Sea ? Its south- 
em branches ? 

What southern strait connects the Atlantic with the Pacific ? 

and salt waters. Freezing temperature of fresh and salt water. — 90. Mean 
temperature of the ocean. Warmth at equator. — 91. Hues of the ocean. 



EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 37 

What branches has the Pacific on the western coast of South America ? 
What bays, sounds, and gulfs on the western coast of North America ? 
What passage leads from the Pacific into the Arctic Ocean ? 
What branches of the Pacific on the eastern coast of Asia ? 
What branches has the China Sea ? 
What passages unite the Pacific and Indian Oceans ? 
What gulf in the north of Australia ? 

Which are the two great branches of the Indian Ocean extending into 
Asia ? 

What branches penetrate Africa ? 
What branches has the Red Sea ? 
What passage leads into the Red Sea ? 
What branches has the Arabian Sea ? 
What gulf west of In'do-Chi'na ? 



CHAPTER V. 

MATHEMATICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL ELEMENTS. 

" Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the earth ? declare, if thou 
hast understanding. Who hath laid the measures thereof, if thou knowcst ? 
or who hath stretched the line upon it ? " — Job xxxviii. 4, 5. 

93. In Mathematical Geografhy we consider the earth 
in the relation it sustains to the snn, moon, and stars, with 
th-e methods of representing its snrface by globes, maps, &c., 
and of determining extents on its snrface. We begin with 
explaining some geometrical terms. 

94. Lines are either straight or cnrved. A straight line is 
the shortest distance between two points. A curve is a line 
constantly changing its direction at every point. 

9o. Parallels are lines equidistant thronghout their course. 

96. A surface has length and breadth without thickness, 
and may be either plane or curved. 

. 97. A circle is a figure bounded by a curve line, every 
l^oint of which is .equally distant from the centre. . The line 
which limits a circle is the circumference. A straight line 
passing through the centre and terminating both ways at the 
circumference is the diameter ; half the diameter is a radius. 

98. All circles, without regard to their magnitude, are sup- 
posed to be divided into tliree hundred and sixty equal parts, 
called <ieo-ree5 ; consequently, the smaller the circle the less 
is a degree of it. A degree of whatever magnitude is sub- 
divided into sixty minutes, and a minute into sixty seconds. 
The minutes of a great circle of the earth are also called 

geographical miles. 

99. An arc is any portion of the circumference of a circle. 
A straight line uniting the extremities of an arc is called a 
chord. 

100. An angle is the space contained between two straight 
lines diverging from the same point. 

93. The earth. How considered in mathematical geography ? — 94. Of lines. 
Straight line. Curved- line. — 95. Ptuallels. — 96. Surface. — 97. A circle. 
Circumference. Diameter, lladius. — 98. Di\-ision of the circle. Geographic 
miles. — 99. An ar.c. Chord. — lt)0. An angle. — 101. Measurement of angles. 

(38) 



MATHEMATICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL ELEMENTS. 39 

101. The magnitude or size of an angle is measured in 
degrees on the arc comprehended between the lines that 
form the angle. 

102. A right angle has an arc of 90°. An acute angle is 
less than a right angle ; an obtuse angle is greater. 

103. A leaden ball suspended by a line from any point 
above the earth's surface will tend towards the centre of the 
earth. Such a line is vertical, or perpendicular. 

104. A line forming a right angle with a perpendicular is 
a horizontal line. 

105. A triangle is a figure having three angles and tjiree 
sides. 

106. A sphere is a figure bounded by a curved surface, 
every point of which is equally distant from the centre of 
the sphere. A hemisphere is half a sphere. The axis of a 
sphere is the line on which it revolves ; the extremities of 
the axis are called iis poles. 

Problems. 

107. a. Two villages are connected by two diiFerent 
roads, one of which passes round a hill, the other tlirough a 
thick woodland. Both villages may be seen from any point 
on the woodland road, which is not the case on the hill road. 
"Which is the shortest road, and why ? 

b. A carpenter planed off the surface of a white pine board. 
What remained after the operation ? " 

c. A Boston expressman took the cars on Monday for 
Providence, from thence he went to Worcester, and on 
Tuesday he came directly home. What geometrical figure 
did he describe in his route ? 

d. The walls of a brick buildiiig are erected perpendicu- 
larly by the " plumb line," in order to secure stability. Are 
the opposite side or end walls therefore parallel ? Give a 
reason with your answer. 

108. If we observe the stars above us, we may notice that 
most of them are fixed in their places ; that they all appear 
to move together from east to west, so that when we have 
become familiar with any group of stars we can always 
recognize it by its uniform appearance. 

109. But if we closely observe some few of the most bril- 
liant stars, from time to time, we shall perceive that they 

— 102. Right angle. Acute angle. Obtuse angle. — 103. A vertical or per- 
pendicular Line. — 104. A horizontal line. — 105. A triangle. — 106. A sphere. 
Hemisphere. Axis. Poles. — 108. Appearance of the stars. -— 109. Exception 



40 



ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



move onward in nearly the same track which the sun appears 
to pursue. These moving stars are called planets. Their 
motions have been ascertained by astronomers to be regular, 
each in its own orbit revolving round the sun, from which 
they all derive their hght and heat. 

110. Now, the earth on which we live is one of the planets ; 
it revolves about the sun as its centre, occupying nearly 
365^ days in completing one revolution. This is its yearly 
or annual motion, causing the changes of the seasons. 



Aphi 



.^,1 



^eptJL 



Uon, 



Terlh 



McLn. 



Hon, 



111. The pathway of the earth round the sun is called its 
orbit. It is not a circle, but is an ellipse, (oval,) the sun 

noticed. Planets. Their motion. — 110. Motion of the earth. Time of revo- 
lution. Effects. — HI. The earth's orbit. — 112. Ecliptic — 113. Ciicurafer- 



MATHEMATICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL ELEMENTS. 



41 



being in one of the foci; hence the earth is nearer the sun in 
one part of the year than in another. 

112. The earth's orbit is also called the ecliptic, as eclipses 
can only occur when the earth, moon, and sun are in line 
with the plane of the ecliptic and with one another. 

113. The earth itself is nearly 25,000 miles in circumfer- 
ence, and a little more than 8,000 miles in diameter. The 
diameter, measured in one direction, is 26 miles shorter than 
when measured in a transverse direction. 

114. Owing to this difference in diameter, the earth can- 
not be a sphere, (106,) but, in geometrical language, it is an 
oblate spheroid. And, as a body on receiving a twirling 
motion will always revolve on its shortest diameter as its 
axis, so the earth, in obedience to this law, revolves on its 
shortest diameter, which circumstance determines the posi- 
tion of its poles. 

115. While the earth, therefore, is moving forward in its 
orbit round the sun, it is likewise turning on its own axis 
from west to east once during twenty-four hours. This is 
the diurnal motion, and causes the alternations of day and 
night. 

116. The axis of the 
earth is an imaginary 
straight line coinciding 
with its shortest diameter. 
It is inclined to the plane 
of its orbit at an angle of 
66° 32', and always re- 
mains parallel to itself* 

117. The best repre- 
sentation of the earth as 
a whole is an artificial 
terrestrial globe, which 
displays on its surface 
the contours and reliefs 
of all the parts of sea and 
land in their relative situ- 
ations and distances. 

118. The ends of the axis on which the globe turns repre- 
sent the poles of the earth. 

* This will require illustration by the teacher. 




ence and diameter of the earth. — 114. True figure of the earth. Axis of 
motion. — 115. Diurnal motion of the earth. — 116. The axis of the earth. Its 
position with regard to the plane of the earth's orbit. — 117. Rehef globes. --. 
118. Poles of the earth. — 119. The dip, or depression of the horizon. — 120, 

4* 



42 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

119. As a consequence of the globular form of the earth, 
the dijj, or depression of the horizon, is six feet for every three 
miles of distance. Hence an object six feet in height would 
be hidden from view by the curvature of the earth if placed 
at a distance of three miles. 

120. The direction or bearing of one place from another, 
on land or sea, is usually determined by an instrument called 
a compass. It consists of a steel needle to which the mag- 
netic property has been communicated. 

121. Such a needle, when balanced on a pivot, will al- 
ways assume a certain position — one of its extremities 
pointing towards that part of the heavens where the North 
Star is situated, and thence called the North Pole, the other 
extremity pointing in the opposite direction, which is the 
South. The direction from the right of the needle (when 
you face north) is the East, where the sun rises ; that to the 
left is West. 

122. Various circles and lines are drawn on the surface of 
a terrestrial globe, which are used for measuring distances, 
&c. Those circles whose planes divide the globe into two 
equal parts, or hemispheres, are called great circles, and those 
which divide it unequally are less circles. By following the 
arc of a great circle between any two points, the navigator 
pursues the shortest line connecting them. 

123. A great circle passing through the poles, and divid- 
ing the globe into eastern and western hemispheres, is a 
meridional circle. Each meridional circle comprises two me- 
ridians, one being the opposite or correspondent of the other, 
the poles being their common points of union. 

124. When the sun is on the meridian of a place it is noon, 
or midday, at that place, and at all places on the same me- 
ridian, and midnight to all places on the opposite meridian. 

125. The Equator is a great circle passing round the globe 
from east to west, equidistant from the poles : it therefore 
intersects every meridian at right angles. 

126. Owing to the inclination of the earth's axis to the 
plane of its orbit, certain portions of its surface are brought 
successively under the vertical rays of the sun, the limits of 
wliich are determined by the angle which the plane of the 
equator makes with the jjlane of the orbit, viz., 23° 28' north 
and south of the equator. 

The compass. — 121. Peculiar property of the compass. Cardinal points. — 
122. Of the circles and lines on a globe. Great circles. Less circles. Shortest 
distance between two points on a globe, or the earth. — 123. Meridional cir- 
cles. Meridians. — 124. Noon. Midnight. — 125. The equator. — 126. A con- 



MATHEMATICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL ELEMENTS. 43 

127. The northern and southern limits are called the tropics, 
or turning points of the sun ; they are also termed the sol- 
stitial points, because the sun seems to be for a short time 
stationary with regard to the equator. These points mark 
the summer solstice, when we have the longest days in the 
northern hemisphere, which is about the 21st of June ; and 
the winter solstice, when we have the longest nights, about 
the 21st of December. The points where the equator makes 
the angle with the ecliptic are called the equinoxes, when the 
days and nights are of equal length — about the 21st of 
March and 21st of September. In any intermediate station 
between the poles and the equator, these apparent motions 
of the sun are viewed obliquely, which renders it more diffi- 
cult for young persons to understand them. Hence it seems 
important that they should first get a clear understanding of 
the motions as they appear at the equator. If we had occa- 
sion to spend a year in the city of Quito, for instance, we 
should see that, towards the end of March, the sun would 
rise due east of us, and, passing directly over our heads, set 
due Avest ; that he would then appear to move northward a 
little every day, that is, rising a little farther north of the 
east point, and setting a little farther north of the west point, 
every day passing, not directly over our heads, but a little 
north of the zenith. He would thus proceed northward till 
he had reached about 23^° of the arch of the horizon, which 
would be a little beyond the middle of June, when he would 
appear to stop, (hence the term solstice ;) and soon afterwards 
he would begin to turn (hence the term tropic) towards the 
south, tijl, in the latter part of September, he would again 
pass directly over our head§. He would then appear gradu- 
ally to rise and set farther and farther to the south, till, in 
December, he would have reached 23^° on the horizon south 
of the equator in rising and setting, and at noon he would 
appear 23^° of the arch of the heavens farther south than 
the point immediately over our heads; and then stopping 
and turning as before, he would come again in March to rise 
due east of us, to pass right over our heads, and to set due 
west of us. 

128. Latitude is distance north or south from the equa- 
tor, and is reckoned in degrees, on a meridian, towards the 
poles ; hence the highest latitude is that of 90°, or one- 
fourth of the earth's circumference. The mean length of a 

sequence of the inclination of the axis to the plane of the orbit. — 127. Of 
tropics. Solstices. Equinoxes. — 128. liatitudes. Highest latitude. Common 
miles in a degree of latitude. A degree of any great circle.— 129. Longitude. 



44 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

degree of latitude in English miles is 69.05 miles. A degree 
of any great circle of the earCn is commonly reckoned as 
equal to 69|^ miles. 

129. Longitude is distance on the globe east or west 
from any given meridian, and is measured on the equator, or 
on any parallel of latitude. The degrees of longitude, there- 
fore, diminish in length as the parallel circles diminish in 
circumference, receding from the equator."^ The Americans 
and English consider the meridian of Greenwich, England, 
as the prime meridian. 

130. There are twelve meridional circles drawn on an arti- 
ficial globe, one through eveiy 15° of longitude, dividing the 
surface into twenty-four equal parts, coiTCsponding to the 
twenty-four hours of the day. Hence the revolution of the 
earth on its axis causes any and every point on its sur- 
face (except the poles) to move eastward through 15° in one 
hour of time, or 1° in four minutes. Hence, also, it is mid- 
day, i. e., twelve o'clock, noon, to all places on the same 
meridian ; consequently to all places 15° east of that me- 
ridian the time is one o'clock, P. M., and to all places 15° 
west it is eleven o'clock, A. M. With these elements for 
calculation, we may ascertain the difference of time between 
points of different longitude. 

131. As has been before observed, the sun's rays fall 
vertically, during sonle part of the year, upon that portion 
of the earth's surface which extends 23° 28' north and south 
of the equator ; hence at these points two circles are drawn 
parallel to the . equator : the northern one is the Tropic of 
Cancer ; the southern is the Tropic of Capricorn. 

132. The belt of the earth's surface included bet\\feen the 
tropics is the Torrid Zone, 46° 56' wide. Here we find the 
hottest climate. The seasons are a wet winter and a dry 
summer. 

133. When the sun is in either tropic its rays fall 23° 28' 
beyond the nearest pole ; hence two other circles are drawn 
parallel to the tropical circles, at a distance of 66° 32' from 
the equator. The northern one is called the Arctic Circle, 

* To find the number of miles to a degree in any parallel of latitude, measure 
in degrees of the equator the distance between two meridians in the given lat- 
itude, and multiply the number of degrees thus found by 4 ; the product will 
be geographical miles, which may be reduced to common miles by multiplying 
by 1.158. 

Variation of length in degrees of longitude. Prime meridian. — 130. Division 
of the globe by meridian circles. Calculations of time. — 131. Cii'cles at 23° 
28' north and south of the equator, — 132. The tomd zone. Seasons. — 
133. EfTect when the sun is in either tropic; circles at 66° 32' north and 



MATHEMATICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL ELEMENTS. 45 

(from arctos, a bear, the principal constellation of the north;) 
the southern one is the Antarctic Circle. 

134. The regions beyond the polar circles, and circum- 
scribed by them, are the Frigid Zones, each 46° 56' in diam- 
eter, the pole forming the centre. The temperature is so 
cold that there is scarcely any vegetation. Snow and ice 
cover the land and sea nearly the whole year. The seasons 
are, consequently, a long, cold winter, and a short summer. 

135. The regions lying between the tropics and polar 
circles are called the Temperate Zones, each 43° 04' in 
breadth. The temperature near the polar circles is very 
cold in winter, and near the tropics it is very warm in sum- 
mer, though, on the whole, the climate in these zones is the 
most delightful in the world. It is highly favorable to the 
production of the most useful vegetables and animals, and 
most conducive to the progress and well being of man. 
Here we have the four seasons — spring, summer, autumn, 
and winter. 

136. At the equator the days and nights are of equal 
length ; but ~5s> the latitude increases their relative length 
differs more and more, till at each pole, alternately, there is 
constant sunlight for six months, followed by a night of the 
same duration. 

Problems. 

137. a. The equator and a meridional circle are both called 
great circles : which is the greater ? Why ? 

b. If you could travel northward until you should arrive 
at the north pole of the earth, what would you expect to see 
there? 

c. When the sun is on the meridian of the place where 
you reside, in what direction will your shadow fall ? Why ? 

d. What spot on the earth's surface has neither latitude 
nor longitude ? Why ? 

e. A and B start from Philadelphia. A travels due north 
ten degrees, and B travels due west ten degrees : which of 
them travels the greatest distance ? Why ? 

f. How do you imagine the equator appears to sailors as 
they are crossing it in a ship ? 

g. If you take the steamship from Boston to Liverpool, 
how many meridians would you cross ? 

h. A person who lived in a large city observed that at 

south of the equator. — 134. The frigid zones. Seasons. — 135. The temperate 
zones. Climate. Seasons. — 136. Of day and night at the equator, and 
towards the poles. 



46 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

noon of the longest clay of the year he had no shadow, but 
that on every other day his noonday shadow fell towards the 
north. What is the latitude of the city ? 

i. The person who made the above observations noticed 
that when it was noon where he was, his chronometer indi- 
cated that at Greenwich, England, it was just twenty-eight 
minutes past four o'clock in the morning. In what city 
was he? 

j\ At what times in the year will a person who lives on 
the equator have no noonday shadow ? 

k. A table in arithmetic gives 69^ miles as equal to one 
degree. Now, Cape Bould, Newfoundland, is 55 degrees 
west of London, England, and both are in the same latitude ; 
according to the table they are 3808 miles apart, and by 
measurement they are 2310 miles. How will you account 
for tliis difference ? 

I. If that portion of the earth called the North Frigid 
Zone were separated from the globe, what would be its 
shape ? 

771. Were the earth's axis perpendicular to .the plane of 
its orbit, how would it affect the days and nights ? How 
the seasons ? 

71. Calculate the time of day at San Francisco when it 
is noon at Boston. 

o. Suppose the earth performed but one revolution on 
its axis, in the time it is revolving once round the sun, what 
would be the condition of its surface ? 

p. Why are 23° 28' and 66° 32' north and south of the 
equator universally adopted as the boundaries of the zones ? 

q. An Anecdote. — Two sailors left a certain port on the 
same day, but in different vessels. Some time afterwards 
they returned, as it happened, on the same day. On meet- 
ing. Jack wished Dick a " Merry Christmas." " You are too 
fast," replied Dick ; " Christmas does not come till day after 
to-morrow." As they could not agree, they referred the mat- 
ter in dispute to a citizen of the place, who, to their surprise, 
told them that they were both wrong, as to-morrow would be 
Christmas day. This threefold difficulty was at length set- 
tled by a schoolmaster, who declared that each was right, 
and that the fact of their thus differing showed that each had 
kept a correct account of the days since their last meeting. 
Now, how can this discrepancy of dates be accounted for ? 



EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 47 



Exercises on the Maps. 

138. Which of the five oceans is largest ? 

What continents lie east of it ? 

What continents lie west of it ? 

What ocean east of America ? 

What regions north of the great continents ? 

What continents east of the Atlantic Ocean ? 

What ocean east of Asia and Australia ? 

What ocean north of the great continents ? 

What four continents are included in the Eastern Hemisphere ? 

Which way is Europe from Asia ? 

Wliich way is Africa from Europe ? 

Which are the three northern continents ? 

Which are the three southern continents ? 

What continent lies soutn-east of Asia ? 

In what direction is Africa from Australia ? 

What ocean intervenes ? 

What ocean south of the Antarctic circle ? 

What are the limits of the Indian Ocean ? 

What land in the south polar regions ? 

In what direction is the length of the Western continent ? 

In what the eastern ? 

Which of the two great continents is broadest ? 

Which is largest in extent of surface ? 

What capes at the northern and southern limits of America ? 

Through how many degrees of latitude does America extend ? How 
many common miles ? 

In what latitude is Point Barrow ? Cape Horn ? 

Through what zones does America extend ? 

What capes mark the east and west limits of America ? 

What is the longitude of each cape ? 

Through how many degrees of longitude does America extend ? 

How do North and South America lie with respect to the 80th meridian 
of west longitude ? 

How with respect to the 10th parallel of north latitude ? 

Which is the most northern cape of Asia ? 

Which the most southern cape of Africa ? 

Through how many degrees of latitude does the Eastern continent ex- 
tend ? How many common miles ? 

In what latitude is Cape Sev'ero ? Cape Agiil'has ? 

Through what zones does the eastern continent extend ? 

What capes mark the east and west hmits of the Eastern continent ? 

In what longitude is each ? 

Through h^» many degrees of longitude does the Eastern continent 
extend ? 

Which of the great continents is longest, and by how many miles ? 

What portion of the Eastern continent constitutes the main body ? 

What IS connected with Asia on the west ? 

What on the south-west ? 



48 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

What is the natural boundary between Asia and Europe ? 

How is Africa joined to Asia ? 

What does the Western continent comprise ? 

Which of these is the main body ? 

How are North and Central America united ? 

How are Central and South America united ? 

Name the chief islands in the Arctic regions. 

What islands along the east coast of North America ? 

What islands between North and South America ? 

What islands at the southern extreme of South America ? 

What islands west of Patagonia and Chi'le ? 

What islands along the west coast of North America ?^ 

What chain of islands between the peninsulas of Alias'ka and Kamt- 
chat'ka ? 

What islands along the east coast of Asia ? 

Name the principal islands between Asia and Australia. 

What large islands south and south-east of Australia ? 

What island south-east of Hindostiin' ? 

What islands east of Africa ? 

What groups of islands west and north-west of Africa ? 

What islands west of Europe ? 

What islands in the Mediterranean Sea ? 

What islands in the Bal'tic ? 

What islands north of Europe and Asia ? 

Principal groups in the North Pacific Ocean ? 

Principal groups in the South Pacific Ocean ? 

Where are the South Shetland Isles ? Kergue'lan's Island ? 

What peninsulas on the east of America ? 

What on the west of America ? 

What peninsulas on the east of Asia ? 

What on the south and south-east of Asia ? 

What on the south of Europe ? West and north-west ? 

Where is the Isthmus of Su'ez ? Of Kraw ? 

Where is the Isthmus of Panama' ? Of Tehuan'tepec ? 

Mention the name and situation of the chief capes of Europe on the 
north ? West ? South ? 

What capes on the north of Asia ? East ? South ? 

What capes on the north of Africa ? East ? South ? West ? 

What capes on the north of North America ? East ? West ? 

What capes on the coast of Central America ? 

What capes on the north of South America ? East ? South ? West ? 

Mention the capes of Australia. 

What three systems of mountains in North America ? 

What three systems in South America ? 

What moimtain chains in Europe ? 

What moimtain chains in Asia ? 

What mountain chains in Africa ? ♦^ 

What large rivers of North America flow into the Arctic Ocean ? The 
Atlantic ? The Gulf of Mexico ? The Pacific ? 

What large rivers in South America ? 

Which are the chief rivers of Europe ? 



EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 49 

Which are the chief rivers of Afiica ? 

What three large rivers in the north of Asia ? 

What three flow east into the Pacific ? 

What four flow into the Indian Ocean ? 

Name the chief seas, gulfs, and bays in North America. In South 
America. 

Name the seas, gulfs, and bays of Europe. 

Name the seas of Asia. 

Name the gulfs and bays of Asia. 

Name the seas, gulfs, and bays of Africa. 

Give the name and place of the principal lakes of North America. Of 
South America. The lakes of Europe. Of Asia. Of Africa. 

What waters are connected and lands separated by Davis's Straits ? 
By Smith's Sound ? By Lancaster's Sound ? By Barrow's Straits ? By 
Wellington Channel? By Fox Channel? By Hudson's Straits? By 
the Straits of Belle Isle ? By Florida Pass ? By the Yucatan' Pass ? 
By the Windward Passage? By the Stmits of Juan de Fuca ? By 
Behr'ing's Straits? By the Straits of Magel'lan? Where is Pu'get's 
Sound. 

What waters are connected and lands separated by the Straits of Gibral- 
tar ? By the Straits of Bonifacio ? By the Straits of Messi'na ? By the 
Straits of Otran'to ? By the Dardanelles^ ? By the Bos'porus ? By 
the Straits of YenikJi'le ? By the Skag'er Rack and Cat'tegat Channels ? 
By the English Channel and Straits of Dover ? By the Bristol Channel ? 
By St. George's Channel ? 

What waters are connected and lands separated by the Straits of Ba'bel- 
man'deb? By the Straits of Or'mus? By Palk's Straits? By the 
Straits of Malac'ca ? By the Straits of Sun'da ? By the Straits of Ma- 
cas'sar ? By Formo'sa Straits ? By the Straits of Core'a ? By the 
Straits of San'gar ? By the Channel of Tartary ? By Torres' Straits ? 
By Bass Straits ? By the Channel of Mozambique' ? 
5 



CHAPTER VI. 

SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Preparatory Exercises on the Map of North America. 

139. What is the shape of this continent ? 
What cape forms its eastern angle ? 
What cape at the north-west angle ? •^■ 
Find the latitude and longitude of Tehuan'tepec. 
What bmnches of the Atlantic Ocean indent the eastern coast ? 
What passage leads into each branch ? 
What branches has Baffin's Bay ? 
What branches has Hud'son's Bay ? 
Where is the Gulf of St. Lawrence ? 
What branches has the Gulf of Mexico ? 
What branches of the Pacific indent the western coast ? 
How are the Pacific and Arctic Oceans united ? 
What branches of the Arctic Ocean indent the northern coast ? 
Name the chief islands along the eastern coast. 
Name those on the Pacific coast. 

What peninsula extends south-west from Russian America ? 
What large island north of Hudson's Bay ? 
How is the peninsula of Labrador' situated ? 
Where is Cape Charles ? [C. St. Lewis.] 
What peninsula lies south-west from Labrador' ? 
By what waters is it bounded ? 
What is its southern cape ? 

What peninsula projects south between the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico ? 
By what cajje is it terminated ? 
Where is the peninsula of Yucatan' ? 
What cape north of Yucatan' ? 

What peninsula on the south-west of North America ? 
What is its direction from the main land ? 
By what cape does it terminate ? 
Where is the peninsula of Ahas'ka ? 
Which is the most northern cape of North America ? 
Where is Cape Bath'urst ? 
What cape east of Central America ? 
Where is Cape Farewell ? 
What cape of Labrador' west of Cape Farewell ? 
Name the principal capes on the Atlantic coast. 

(50) 



I 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 51 

Name those on the Pacific coast. 

What group of islands six hundred miles east of South Carolina ? 
• "What are the three groups of the West Indies ? 

What do the Greater Antilles' comprise ? 

How are the Baha^mas situated ? 

How are the Lesser Antilles' situated ? 

What capes east and west of Cuba ? 

Name the political divisions of North America. 

What country is crossed by the tropic of Cancer ? 

What by the Arctic circle ? 

What isthmus unites North and Central America ? 

What isthmus unites Central and South America ? 

What body of water is enclosed between the Greater and Lesser An- 
tilles' and the main land ? 

What lands enclose the Gulf of Mexico ? 

What are the boundaries of the United States ? 

What comitry between the isthmuses of Tehuan'tepec and Panama' ? 

On what parallel of latitude is North America widest? 

On what meridian is North America longest ? 

Between what points can the longest straight Hne be drawn on the land ? 

What parallel crosses New'fomidland' and Vancou'ver Islands ? 

Where is Cape Prince of Wales ? 

What place is in 16° north latitude and 95° west longitude ? 

What large island north of Hudson's Strait ? 

Of what is Hiid'son's Bay a branch ? 

Of what is Baffin's Bay a branch ? 

What strait between Cumberland Island and Greenland ? 

Where is James's Bay ? 

Where is the Strait of Belle Isle ? 

Where are the Campea'chy and Hondu'ras Bays ? 

Where are the Caliior'nia and Tehuan'tepec Gulfs ? 

Where is Behr'ing's Strait ? 

Where is Corona'tion Gulf ? 

Where are Sit'ka, Prince of Wales, and Queen Char'lotte Islands ? 

Where is Southampton Island ? 

What large peninsula forms the most eastern portion of North America ? 

Where is No'va Sco'tia ? 

What islands next north and north-east of No'va Sco'tia ? 

What bay between New Bruns'wick and No'va Sco'tia ? 

Where are the Sable Capes ? 

Where and what is Flor'ida ? 

What peninsula projects north from Central America ? 

Where is Cape Cato'che ? 

Where and what is Lower California ? 

Where is Cape St. Lu'cas ? 

Where is Point Bar'row ? 

Name the chief islands of the Arctic regions. 

Where is the Gulf of Bdo'thia ? 

What capes between the mouth of the Macken zde River and Corona'- 
tion GuK? 



62 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Where is Cape Gra'cias a Di'os ? 

What cape south of Greenland ? 

Where is Cape Chud'leigh ? 

Where is Cape Mendoci'no ? 

Where are Capes Cod and Hat'teras ? 

Where is the Bay of San Francis'co ? 

Where are the Bermu'das Islands ? 

Where is Cape Siin Anto'nio ? 

What circle crosses Mexico ? 

What circle crosses Russian and British America ? 

What does the Isthmus of Tehuan'tepec connect ? 

What the Isthmus of Panama' ? 

Where is the Caribbe'an Sea ? 

What island between the Caribbe'an Sea and Gulf of Mexico ? 

What large islands are crossed by the 49th parallel ? 

Of what countries is this parallel the boundary line for about 30° ? 

In what zones does North America lie ? 

What part of Europe corresponds in latitude with the New England 
States ? 

What part of Europe corresponds in latitude with the British 
Provinces ? 

What part of Africa corresponds with Florida ? 



§ 1. Extent and General Features op North America. 

140. North America comprises a vast extent of territory, sit- 
uated in the northern hemisphere. The Arctic Ocean is on 
its northern border, the Atlantic on the east, and the Pacific 
on the west and south. It approaches within forty-eight 
miles of Asia on the north-west, from which it is separated 
by Behring's Straits. 

141. It Ues between the parallels of 16° and 72° north 
latitude, and the meridians of 56° and 168° west longitude. 
Its surface is estimated at about 8,000,000 square miles, and 
its coast line at 24,000 miles, or one mile of coast to every 
345 square miles of surface. 

142. The continent comprises the countries of Russian 
America, British America, United States, and Mexico. 
Greenland is a detached portion lying to the north-east, and 

140. The limits of North America. — 141. Extremes of latitude and longi- 
tude. Area. Coast line. — 142. Countries of North America. — 143. Indenta- 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 53 

separated from the main by Davis's Straits and Baffin's 
Bay. On the south-east of Mexico are the states of Cen- 
tral America. 

143. North America is deeply indented by several large 
branches of the ocean. In the north-east are Baffin's and 
Hudson's Bays ; in the east the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and 
several bays along the coast of the United States ; in the 
south the Gulf of Mexico ; and in the west the Gulf of Cal- 
ifornia and Bay of San Francis'co. The surface of the con- 
tinent is diversified with highlands, plateaus, and plains, and 
with noble lakes and rivers. 

§ 2. Mountain Systems of North America. 

144. Three systems of mountains belong to this conti- 
nent — the Chippeway'an or Rocky Mountains; the CaH- 
fornian Coast Bange ; and the Appalach'ian or AUegha'ny 
Mountains. 

145. TkE Rocky Mountain System, so called from its 
broken and rugged character, and bare granite summits, is 
regarded as a continuation of the South American Andes. 
It commences at the Isthmus of Tehuan'tepec, and running 
northward, divides into three distinct ridges, at about the 21st 
parallel. 

146. The eastern ridge is the Cordille'ra de Coahuila. It 
runs parallel with the gulf coast, and terminates at the Ri'o 
Gran'de. The western ridge is the Cordille'ra de Sond'ra. 
It takes a north-westerly course, and becoming gradually" 
lower as it approaches the Gulf of California, terminates in 
the state of Sono'ra. The third or central ridge is the Sier'ra 
Ma'dre. It extends northward nearly to the thirty-second 
parallel between th© head waters of the Ri'o Gran'de and 
Ri'o Gil'a. This portion of the Chippeway'ans is commonly 
called the Mexican Cordille'ras. 

147. The highest summits of the Mexican Cordille'ras are 
in the southern portion. They are the five volcanoes ex- 
tending in a line from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific, 
viz., the Tdxt'la, the Oriza'ba, 17,374 feet, the Popocatape'tl, 
17,717 feet, the Iztaccihua'tl, 15,705 feet, and the Tolil'ca 
15,542 feet. 

tions of the coast. Diversities of surface. — 144. Tliree mountain sj's- 
tems. — 145. llocky Mountains. — 146. The Eastern Ridge. Western Ridge. 
Central Ridge. — 147. Highest parts of the Mexican Cordilleras. The tivo 
5* 



54 



ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



NORTH AMERICA, 








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SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 55 

148. At the termination of the Sier'ra Ma'dre there is a 
gap of eighty to a hundred miles in width, on a level with 
the plateau. At 32° 32' north latitude the Rocky Mountains 
again commence, suddenly rising out of the plane, and, ex- 
tending north for about 1800 miles, terminate west of the Ma- 
kenzie River, skirting the Polar Sea nearly to Point Beechy. 

149. The Rocky Mountains, in their northern portion, are 
divided into several parallel ridges ; and in one part no less 
than thirteen successive ridges are said to occur. But they 
run chiefly in two parallel chains, sometimes united by a trans- 
verse ridge. In some parts the eastern chain rises above the 
snow line ; ^ but the general elevation is only above the 
line of trees. The western chain is lower till north of the 
55th parallel, where both are of equal height. The culmi- 
nating point of the Rocky Mountains is supposed to be in 
about 42° north latitude, which is the mountain knot of 
Frem'ont. 

150. In Texas a branch called the Sa'ba or Ozark' Moun- 
tains passes off north-east to the confluence of the Missou'ri 
and Mississip'pi Rivers. Many of the summits of the Rocky 
Mountains attain to a considerable elevation, varying from 
12,000 to nearly 16,000 feet. The principal are Mount Brown, 
15,900 feet; Mount Hooker, 15,700 feet; Frem'ont's, 13,570 
feet ; Long's, Pike's, and Spanish Peaks. 

151. Of the depressions of the Rocky Mountain range, 
called Passes, there are several. That of El Pa'so, near lat- 
itude 32° north, is about 5000 feet above the level of the 
sea ; the San'gre de Chris'to Pass, 8800 feet elevation ; the 
South Pass, 7490 feet ; and Lewis and Clarke's Pass, near 
the head sources of the Missouri, 6000 feet elevation. In 
the British Possessions, at about 52° 30' north latitude, is the 
Athabas'ca Portage, of 7300 feet elevation. 

152. The Californian Coast Range of Mountains ex- 
tends from the southern extremity of the Peninsula of Cali- 
fornia to Mount St. Elias in Russian America, with no other 
gaps than that of the " Golden Gate," and those where the 
Columbia and Fra'zer's Rivers find a passage. 

* In all latitudes there is a certain, height, or limit, in the atmosphere, where 
the thermometer never rises above 32°, and, consequently, where ice and snow 
remain permanently. This limit is variously called the " snow line," or " line 
of perpetual snow," or " line of constant congelation." It is highest in the 
torrid zone, where the heat is greatest. 

volcanoes. — 148. Termination of the Sierra Madre, and continuation of the 
Rocky Mountains. — 149. Parallel chains. Note. Snow line. — 150, The Saba 
or Ozark Mountains. Remarkable summits in the Rocky Mountains. — 151. 
Passes of the Rocky Mountains. — 152. The California or maiitime range. — 



56 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

153. Although the average height of this system is less 
than that of the Rocky Mountains, some of its peaks are 
higher. The chief summits are Mount St. Elias, 17,860 feet, 
the highest in North America ; and Mounts Fairweather, 
14,925 feet, St. Hel'en's, Hood, Jefferson, and Shas'ta. 

154. That part of the range which traverses the State of 
California, at a distance of about 150 miles from the ocean, is 
called the Sier'ra Neva^da, and is from 6000 to 7000 feet ele- 
vation. It divides the country into two parts, and exercises 
a decided influence on the climate and productions of each. 

155. The valley of the San Joaquin' and Sacramen'to 
Rivers lies between the Sier'ra Neva'da and the coast ridge, 
and is the gold region of California. 

156. At about 41° north latitude, a ridge running eastward 
unites the Sier'ra Neva'da with the Rocky Mountains, form- 
ing the watershed between the Columbia and Colora'do 
Rivers. It continues east of the Rocky Mountains, from 
Frem'ont's Knot, under the names of the Wind River Moun- 
tains, and Black Hills, as far as the Missouri River. 

157. The Alleghanian System extends from Alaba'ma 
north-easterly to the banks of the River St. Lawrence, a 
distance of about 1500 miles. It comprises several parallel 
ridges, separated by fertile valleys, and covering a breadth 
of 100 to 150 miles. The watershed follows the windings 
of the Atlantic coast. 

158. The first continued ridge of this system is the Blue 
Ridge. It begins at 33° north latitude, and runs a north- 
easterly course till it reaches the Hudson River at West 
Point. It rises again on the east bank of the river, and 
passes along the western boundary of Massachusetts, under 
the names of the Taghkan'ic and the Hoo'sac Mountains ; 
thence joining the Green Mountains of Vermont, it continues 
onward around the sources of the Connecticut River, termi- 
nating in New Brunswick. 

159. The White Mountains of New Hampshire are a sort 
of advanced post of the Allegha'nian range, being detached 
from it, and comprising a long range of proud eminences, 
of which Mount Washington is the commanding peak. 
Through most of the year their tops are covered with snow. 

160. At a distance varying from five to ten miles west of 

153. Principal peaks of the maritime range. — 154. The Sierra Nevada. — 155. 
The valley of the Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers. — 156. Watershed along 
the 41st parallel. — 157. The system of the Alleghanies. Course of the water- 
shed. — 158. The Blue Ridge. Its course and change of names. — 159. The 
White Mountains. Mount Washington. — 160. The Kittatinny range. — 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 57 

the Blue Ridge is the Kittatm'ny ridge, extending from 
Alaba'ma to New York, a length of about 800 miles. Next 
beyond the Kittatin'ny is the Allegha'ny ridge, extending 
only 300 miles from south-west to north-east, between the 
Kanaw'ha and Susquehan'na rivers. Several subordinate 
ridges lie west of the Allegha^ny, of which the Cumberland 
mountains in Kentucky and Tennessee', and the Laurel and 
Chestnut Ridges in Pennsylvania, are the most considerable, 
161. The ridges of the Allegha'nian system are not gener- 
ally elevated more than 2500 feet above the level of the sea. 
The lowest point appears to be in the valleys of the Dela- 
ware and Hudson, where they do not exceed 1000 feet. 
They rise towards their extremities, and in the White Moun- 
tains at the north we find the summit of Mount Washington 
to be 6226 feet, and in the south the Black Mountain, in 
North Carolina, 6476 feet in height. 



§ 3. Plateaus of North America. 

162. The great table lands of Mexico begin at the Isthmus 
of Tehuan'tepec, and extend north-westerly to 40° north lati- 
tude, a distance of 1600 miles. They lie between the ridges 
of the Mexican Cordille'ras, expanding towards the north- 
west with their divergence, till, at the parallel of 20°, they 
attain their greatest breadth and height. From an elevation 
'of 5000 feet on the east, they rise towards the west to the 
height of 7480 feet, and then descend to 4000 feet towards 
the Pacific. 

163. The descent from these plateaus to the lowlands is 
very steep on all sides. Only two good roads from the Gulf 
of Mexico lead to the plateau — one at Xala'pa, (Ha-la'pa,) 
near Ve'ra Crtjz, the other at Saltillo, ( Sal-teel'yo,) near 
Monterey'. Where the surface is not traversed by moun- 
tains, the plateau is nearly level. A fine road extends for 
1200 miles from the city of Mexico to Siin'ta Fe. 

164. In the southern part, the plateau is divided into four 
distinct plains, surrounded by hills. In the plain of Tenoch- 
titlan stands the city of Mexico, 7480 feet above the level 
of the sea. 

165. In these table lands there are deep cavities or rents, 

The Alleghany ridge. Other subordinate ridges. — 161. Elevation of the 
Alleghanies. Lowest point. Highest points. — 162. Describe the Mexican 
plateaus. Their elevation from east to west. — 162. Their declivities. 
Roads. — 164. Plains in the south. City of Mexico. — 165. Barancas. — 



58 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

called Baran'cas, two or three miles wide, and many more in 
length, with a depth often of 1000 feet, and a stream of water 
flowing through them. 

166. The Allegha'nian Plateau lies between the Blue and 
Allegha'ny ridges, extending more than 800 miles from Ala- 
bii'ma to New York. Its highest elevation is at the south, 
being about 2000 feet, and descending northward to 500 feet. 



§ 4. Declivities and Plains of North America. 

167. The relative position of the Allegha'nian and Rocky 
Mountains naturally divides the surface of the continent into 
three sections. - 

168. Th5 section east of the Allegha'nies forms the Atlan- 
tic Declivity, reaching from the eastern coast of Massachu- 
setts to the Gulf of Mexico. In the New England States 
this tract is very narrow, comprising the mere coast and 
islands ; it expands in its course southward, the mountains 
in South Carolina being over two hundred miles from the 
sea. From the Blue Ilidge to the sea coast it is divided 
into two distinct portions — the Atlantic terrace, or middle 
country, and the mar'itime lowlands. 

169. The line of separation between the terrace and low- 
lands may be traced from the Hudson River nearly to the 
Mississippi, by a rocky ledge rising above the low, flat, sandy 
plain, which extends from their base to the Atlantic. This' 
dividing ledge is marked out by the rapids and cataracts 
observed in ascending the rivers. 

170. A line traced from New York city, through Trenton, 
Baltimore, Washington, Fredericksburg, Richmond, Fayette- 
ville, Columbia, Augusta, and Milledgeville, will also mark 
this boundary, as each of these cities is situated on a river 
at or near the rapids or falls, at the head of tide water. 

171. The terrace has an elevation of from 50 to 300 feet, 
and extends westward to the foot of the mountains. It is 
continued around the southern extremity of the AUegha'- 
nies, between the uplands and lowlands of the Gulf of 
Mexico, and across Texas to the foot of the Mexican Cor- 
dille'ras. This fine tract includes some very rich and fertile 
valleys. 

166. The Alleghanian plateau. — 167. Sections of the continent. — 168. The 
Atlantic declivity. Atlantic terrace and maritime lowlands. — 169. Line of 
separation between the terrace and lowlands. — 170. Cities along this line. 
— 171. Elevation and width of the terrace. Its continuation southward. — 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 59 

172. The Pacific Declivity is divided into three portions 
— the lowlands, extending^ from the ocean to the coast range ; 
the middle country, or first terrace, lying between the coast 
range and the Sier'ra Neva'da and Blue Mountains; and 
the upper country, or second terrace, extending from the 
Sier'ra Neva'da and Blue Mountains to the crest of the Rocky 
Mountains. 

173. The Great Central Plain of North America lies 
between the Rocky and Allegha'nian Mountains, and extends 
from the Gulf of Mexico on the south to the Arctic Ocean on 
the north. A low table land, about the 47th parallel, in 
Minneso'ta, forms the watershed between the waters that 
flow north and north-east into the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, 
and those that flow south into the Gulf of Mexico. The 
height of this watershed is from 1600 to 2000 feet above the 
level of the Gulf of Mexico. Within the great central plain 
are included the basins of the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, 
and the northern declivity. 

174. The basin of the Mississippi presents a uniform char- 
acter, rising by a gentle ascent from the gulf to the sources 
of the Mississippi River, and also from the west bank of the 
river to the foot of the Rocky Mountains. On the east bank 
towards the Allegha'nian Mountains, it is more broken and 
uneven. The eastern portion of this basin is well wooded 
and fertile ; the middle portion is fertile, but generally bare of 
wood ; while in the west, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, 
we find the Great American Desert. 

175. A belt of forest land, known as the " Cross Timber," 
extends in a direct line from north to south across the prairies 
of Northern Texas and the Ozark' country to the Arkan'sas 
River. It varies in width from five to fifty miles, and in some 
parts is so straight and regular that it looks like a work of 
art, and when viewed from the adjoining prairies on the east 
or west has the appearance of an immense wall of woods. 

176. The basin of the St. Lawrence is a narrow tract, 
bounded on both sides by ranges of highlands which separate 
its waters from those of the surrounding declivities. The 
average fall of the basin from south-west to north-east is 
little more than six inches in a mile ; but it is very unequally 
distributed, on account of many cataracts, rapids, &c., along 
its course. The greater part of the northern declivity, lying 

172. The Pacific declivity. — 173. Great central plain of North America. 
Watershed of this plain. Its summit level. Basins of the plain. — 174. De- 
scribe the basin of the Mississippi. The eastern, middle, and western portions. 
— 175. The "Cross Timber." — 176. Basin of the St. Lawrence. Northern 



60 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ' 

north of the plateau of Minneso'ta, is a bleak and barren 
waste, interspersed with many lakes, which pour their waters 
either into Hudson's Bay or the Arctic Ocean. 



§ 5. E.IVER Systems of North America. 

177. North America contains five distinct river systems, cor- 
responding with the declivities and basins before described. 

178. The first in order is a system of innumerable lakes 
and rivers in the northern declivity, which either flow into the 
Arctic Ocean through the Mackenzie, Coppermine, and Back 
Bivers, or into Hudson's Bay through the Nelson and Albany 
Bivers, besides many others. 

179. The second \^ the Biver St. Lawrence, with its chain 
of lakes. This is the grand outlet of the largest fresh water 
system in the world. Its most western source is the Biver 
St. Louis, an affluent of Lake Superior, rising in the table 
land of Minneso'ta, at an elevation of about 1200 feet above 
the sea level. 

180. The short rivers or straits which serve to connect the 
great lakes one with another take special names, but the 
great river is flrst known as the St. Lawrence, as it issues 
from Lake Onta'rio. Continuing a north-easterly course, it 
flows into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Its entire length is 
about 2000 miles. 

181. The third is the Mississippi, which is the great cen- 
tral river of North America. It rises in the small lake Itas'ka, 
in 47° N lat., 94° W. Ion., at an elevation of 1680 feet above 
the level of the Gulf of Mexico, and after a southerly course 
of 3160 miles, receiving many tributaries in its progress, it 
empties into the Gulf of Mexico. 

182. The Mississippi, in connection with its main affluent, 
the Missouri, is the dividing line between two great planes, 
one descending from the summit of the Allegha'nies, the 
other from the summit of the Bocky Mountains. The uni- 
form and gradual descent of different portions of tliis great 
river is very remarkable. From the Gulf of Mexico to the 
Grand Falls of the Missouri, a distance of 4000 miles, there 
is no obstacle to the running of light-draught steamboats at 

declivity. — 177. River systems of North America. — 178. Waters of the north- 
ern declivity. — 179. The River St, La^vrence. Source. — 180. The name. 
Course. Termination and length. — 181. The Mississippi River. — 182. The 
Mississippi and Missouri a dividing line. Descent of the different por- 
tions of the Mississippi. Elevation of the Grand Falls. Affluents from 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 61 

all seasons of the year, when the river is free from ice. The 
elevation of the Grand Falls is 2300 feet above the level of 
the sea. The Arkan'sas and Red Rivers are also affluents 
of the Mississippi from the west. 

183. The rock forming the Ailegha'ny ranges being chiefly 
limestone, the rivers that fall from them have cut for them- 
selves deep channels, far below the general surface of the 
country. They consequently have a gentle flow, with suf- 
ficient water to render them navigable for a great part of the 
year. The main tributary entering the Mississippi from the 
east is the Ohio. The descent of this river from Pittsburg 
to its mouth, a distance of 975 miles, is 424 feet. The Ohio 
is formed by the confluence of the Allegha'ny and Monon- 
gahela Rivers. 

184. The Tennessee' and Cumberland Rivers, which, with 
the Ohio, drain the greater part of the western slope of the 
Allegha'nies, possess the same general characteristics as the 
Ohio. The slight descent of these rivers gives them gentle 
currents and deep channels, peculiarly favorable to com- 
merce. Besides the Mississippi there are many other 
streams which flow directly into the Gulf from this basin. 
Of these the Ri'o Gran'de del Nor'te is the largest. 

185. The streams that flow from the Atlantic declivity 
into the ocean constitute the fourth of the North American 
river systems. All these are short and comparatively small, 
but they are of ihe highest utility. Many of them, by falling 
over the rocky ledge which marks the Atlantic terrace, afford 
an enormous and extensive water power, and, being naviga- 
ble from the ocean quite across the maritime lowlands, have 
determined the location of some of the chief cities of the 
United States. 

186. The streams that flow from the Pacific declivity into 
the ocean constitute a ffth river system of this continent. 
The largest is the Columbia River, which has its sources not 
far from those of the Missou'ri and Ri'o del Nor'te. After 
a winding course of 1000 miles, in which it receives many 
tributaries, it crosses the coast range, where it forms some 
grand cataracts, (hence the name Cascade Range,) and hav- 
ing passed between the lofty summits of Mount Hood and 
Mount St. Heron's, it falls into the Pacific Ocean near the 

the west. — 183, Of the rivers from the western slope of the Alleghanies. 
Describe the Ohio. — 184. The Tennessee and Cumberland. Other rivers from 
the Mississippi basin. — 185. Rivers of the Atlantic declivity. Their utility. — 
186. Rivers of the Pacific declivity. The Colorado and Gila Rivers. — 187. 
6 



62 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

46th parallel. The Colorii'do from the Rocky Mountains in 
the north-east of U'tah, and the Gila from the south of New 
Mexico, flow into the head of the Gulf of California. 

187. The watershed of the Rocky Mountains being at a, 
greater distance from the Pacific than that of the Allegha'- 
nies from the Atlantic, the rivers are longer, but not so nu- 
merous. The Sacramen^to and San Joaquin' Rivers, though 
comparatively small streams, have become celebrated from 
the extensive and rich gold region through which they flow. 
In Russian America, west of the Rocky Mountains, the land 
slopes towards the Arctic Ocean, .and is drained by the Cbi'- 
ville and its tributaries. 



§ 6. Lakes of North America. 

188. The higher latitudes of both the old world and the 
new are characterized by fresh water lakes ; but in number 
and extent those of the new world far exceed those of the 
old. The American lakes contain more than half the quan- 
tity of fresh water on the globe. The five principal lakes, 
Superior, Hu'ron, Michigfin', E'rie, and Onta'rio, cover an 
a'rea of about 94,000 square miles. 

189. The height of these lakes shows the slope of the 
continent. The surface of Lake Superior is 598 feet above 
the level of the ocean. Lakes Hu'ron and Michigan' are 20 
feet lower than Superior ; Lake E'rie is 13 feet lower than 
Hu'ron ; and Lake Onta'rio is 333 feet lower than E'rie. Of 
this difference of level between E'rie and Onta'rio 165 feet 
form one perpendicular fall, and 51 feet the descent of the 
rapids above the falls. The St, Lawrence, which drains the 
whole, slopes 232 feet between the foot of the falls and the 
sea. The bed of Lake Superior is 300 feet, and that of On- 
tario 268 feet, below the surface of the ocean. 

190. The principal lakes in British America are Wm'nipeg, 
Deer, Wollaston, Athabas'ca, Great Slave, and Great Bear 
Lake. They may be regarded as the chief members of 
separate basins, each embracing a wide extent of country. 
In New York State there are many lakes which belong to 

Comparison of the rivers of the Pacific and Atlantic declivities. The Sacra- 
mento and San Joaquin Rivers. Rivers in Russian America. — 188. Of lakes 
in the higher latitudes of the continents. The American lakes. Area com- 
prised within the five great lakes. — 189. Summit level of these lakes. De- 
scent of the St. LaAvrence, Bed of Lake Superior and Lake Ontario. — 190. 
Principal lakes in British America. How regarded. Lakes of New York. Of 
New Hampshire and Maine. Lakes in the south of the Mississippi basin. — 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP NORTH AMERICA. 63 

the basin of the St. Lawrence ; the largest of them is Lake 
Champlain', 128 miles long. The lakes of New Hampshire 
and Maine belong to the Atlantic declivity. In the southern 
part of the Mississippi basin, Lakes Pontchartrain', Borgne, 
and others fall into the Gnlf of Mexico. 

191. In the Pacific declivity on the first terrace, in Cali- 
fornia, are the Td'le Lakes ; and in tJ'tah, on the second 
terrace, are the Great Salt Lake, IJ'tah Lake, and Pyr'amid 
Lake, which have no outlet to the sea. 



§ 7. Physical Aspects of Central Am'erica and the 
West Indies. 

192. As a natural division Central America comprises all 
the territory between the Isthmuses of Tehuan'tepec and 
Panama'. It extends from north-west to south-east, about 
1200 miles, varying in breadth from 20 to 400 miles. 

193. The line of the Pacific coast is comparatively regu- 
lar, but on the northern and eastern side the coast line is very 
much broken. The Peninsula of Yucatan' projects north to 
Cape Cato'che, having the Bay of Campe'che and Gulf of 
Mexico on the west and north, with the Caribbe'an Sea and 
Bay of Hondd'ras on the east. From the Bay of Hondd'- 
ras the coast extends east to Cape Gra'cias a Di'os ; thence 
southerly to the Isthmus of Panama'. 

194. Central America is not traversed by any very distinct 
mountain chain, but elevated plateaus occupy its central 
parts, forming a kind of communication between the Rocky 
Mountains of North America and the Andes of South Amer- 
ica. The highlands descend more precipitously on its west- 
ern side, but to the north and east the country slopes gradu- 
ally. The whole territory consists of three distinct groups, 
divided by valleys which run from sea to sea. They are 
Cos'ta Ri'ca in the south-east, the group of Hondti'ras and 
Nicara'gua in the middle, and Guatema'la in the north and 
west. 

195. In Cos'ta Bi'ca there are table lands of more than 
3000 feet height, narrow and chain-like, with the Cordille'ra 
de Verii'gua, about 9000 feet, and many volcanoes. In Gua- 
tema'la the table lands are larger, and occur in many terraces, 

19i. Lakes of the Pacific declivity. — 192. Central America as a natural di- 

fijion. Extent. — 193. Its coast line. Peninsula of Yucatan. The coast 

.>om the Bay of Honduras. — 194. Reliefs of Central America. Slopes. Nat- 

.al divisions of the country. — 195. Of Costa Rica. Of Guatemala. — 19G. 



64 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

containing large so,vannas and magnificent forests, bordered 
on the coast by a series of isolated volcanoes. 

196. The Volcii'no de A'gna, 15,000 feet high, is a perfect 
cone, verdant to its summit. It occasionally pours forth tor- 
rents of boiling water and stones. The old city of Guate- 
mala has been twice destroyed by it. Altogether, there are 
thirty-nine volcanoes in Central America. 

197. In the large plain of Nicara'gua is the Lake Nicara'- 
gua. It is about 130 feet above the level of the Pacific, and 
discharges its waters by the San Juan' River into the Carib- 
be'an Sea. All the large rivers of Central America flow 
north-east and east. 

198. The West Indian Islands, which are regarded as 
once forming a part of the continent of America, are divided 
into three distinct groups — the Lesser Antilles', the Greater 
Antilles', and the Baha'ma Islands. Some of the Lesser 
Antilles' are flat, but their general character is bold, with a 
single mountain, or group of mountains, in the centre, which 
slopes to the sea all around. 

199. Trinidad' is the most southerly of a line of magnifi- 
cent islands, which form a semicircle, enclosing the Carib- 
be'an Sea. The line is single to the Island of Guadaloupe', 
where it divides into two chains. Trinidad', Toba'go, St. 
Lii'cia, and Domini'ca are particularly mountainous, and the 
mountains are cut by deep, narrow ravines, covered by ancient 
forests. 

200. Most of the volcanic islands have conical mountains, 
and are in the single part of the chain. Nearly all the Lesser 
Antilles' have a large portion of excellent soil in a high state 
of cultivation. Most of them are surrounded by coral reefs, 
which render navigation dangerous. These islands terminate 
north with the group of the Virgin Islands. 

201. The group of the Greater Antilles' comprises the four 
largest and finest of all the West Indies. Pouto Rico has 
wooded mountains running from east to west through the 
centre, extensive savannas in the interior, and very rich soil 
on the northern coast. 

202. Hayti, 340 miles long, 132 broad, has a chain of moun- 
tains in its centre, extending from east to Avest, like all the 
mountains in this group, the highest point of which is 9000 
feet above the sea. A branch diverges from the main stem 

Volcano de Agua. Number of volcanoes. — 197. Of lakes and rivers of Cen- 
tral America. — 198. The West Indies. How regarded. How grouped. Of 
the Lesser Antilles. — 199. Trinidad and other islands. — 200. Volcanic islands. 
— 201. The Greater Antilles. Porto Rico. — 202. Hayti. — 203. Jamaica. — 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP NORTH AMERICA. 65 

south and west to Cape Tiburon', so that Hay'ti contains a 
great proportion of high land. The mountains are suscepti- 
ble of cultivation nearly to the summit. The extensive 
plains are well watered, and the soil productive. 

203. Jamaica belongs to the British government, and is 
chiefly valuable for its sugar plantations. The principal 
chain of the Blue Mountains lies in the centre, with offsets 
which cover all the eastern part of the island. The elevated 
ridges are flanked by lower ranges, descending to verdant 
savannas. Not more than a twentieth part of the island is 
level ground. 

204. Cuba, the largest of the West Indies, is 648 miles 
long, and from 25 to 107 miles in breadth. Area, 31,468 
square miles. Its mountains, which rise to the height of 
7000 feet, occupy the centre, and fill the eastern part of the 
island. Though much of the low ground is swampy and 
unhealthy, there are rich valleys and extensive fertile plains. 
About a seventh part of the island is cultivated. The coast 
is so beset with coral reefs, sand banks, and rocks, that but a 
small part of it is accessible. There are, however, several 
excellent harbors. 

205. The Bahama Islands comprise about 500, many of 
them mere rocks ; twelve are rather large, and are cultivat- 
ed. They produce logwood and mahogany. 



§ 8. Geology of North America. 

206. The geological structure of the highlands of this con- 
tinent, particularly those of Mexico and Central America, is 
distinguished by some remarkable peculiarities. The Alle- 
ghanies present their scarp or steepest side to the east, where 
granite, gneiss, and other primitive rocks are seen. Upon these 
lie, first, a thin formation of transition rocks dipping to the 
westward ; and next a series of secondary rocks, including a 
very extensive coal formation, which reaches from Pittsburg to 
far beyond the Mississippi River. The Ozark' Mountains ex- 
hibit similar strata in the same order and position, and there- 
fore probably consist of a western portion of the same beds 
raised to the surface by a slip or dislocation. In the Rocky 
Mountains primitive rocks are found in the centre or axis of 
the chain, with old red sandstone, coal, and new red sand- 
stone, containing rock salt, leaning against its sides. A great 

204. Cuba. — 205. Bahamas. — 206. Geology of North America. The AUe- 
6* 



66 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

tract to the eastward of this chain is covered with granitic 
sands, and near the bed of the Mississippi there is a deep 
formation of alhivium. The Mexican table lands consist 
chiefly of transition slaty rocks, intermixed with which are 
two species of limestone, and enormous masses of porphyry, 
trachyte, sienite, basalt, and other rocks of volcanic origin. 
The veins of silver and gold are found chiefly in the older 
porphyry, the granular limestone, the sienite, and the tran- 
sition slates. 

207. The coal fields of the states are of prodigious ex- 
tent. The ascertained areas of the coal formation are as 
follows : In Alaba'ma, 3400 square miles ; Georgia, 150 ; 
Tennessee', 4300; Kentucky, 13,500; Virginia, 21,195; Mary- 
land, 550; Ohio, 11,900; Indiana, 7700; Illinois, 44,000; Penn- 
sylvania, 15,437 ; Michigan', 5000 ; and Missou'ri, 6000. The 
coal east of the highest Allegha'nies generally takes the 
form of dn'thracite, while west and in the valleys of the great 
central rivers it is bitu'minous. 



Table of Minerals in North and Central America. 

Gold. — United States, (California, Carolinas, Georgia,) Mexico, (North- 
western States,) and Central America. 

Silver. — United States, (in the lead districts of Lake Superior, &c.,) Mex- 
ico, (Central States,) and Central America. 

Zinc, Tin, and Mercury. — United States, (California,) and in Mexico. 

Copper. — United States, (New Jersey, New York, and in the regions of Lake 
Superior, &c.,) and in Mexico. 

Lead. — United States (Illinois, Missouri, New York, &c.) and Mexico. 

Iron. — United States, (Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Maryland, 
Massachusetts, Connecticut, Carolina, &c.,) Canada, (the mines of 
St. Maurice, &c.,) Mexico, and Central America. 

Coal. — Anthracite: Pennsylvania, &c. Bituminoiis : Throughout the West- 
ern States ; Nova Scotia, and Cape Bret'on Island. 

Salt. — United States, (New York, Massachusetts, Kentucky, Illinois, Mis- 
souri, and California,) Mexico, (Oaxa'ca, &c.,) and in Central 
America. 

ghanies. The Ozark Mountains. The Rocky Mountains. The Mexican table 
lands. — 207. The coal fields. Two descriptions of coal. 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 67 



§ 9. Questions for Review. 

208. "What general form of contour' has North America ? 

What featm-es in the rehefs of the continent seem to have determined 
its outline ? 

What three mountain systems in North America ? 

AVhich is the most extensive ? 

Of what grand range is it a part ? 

What i-ange runs nearly parallel to the Rocky Mountains on the west- 
ern border ? 

W^hat is the position of the Allegha'nies ? Their length ? Their aver- 
age height ? 

Name the principal ridges in order from east to west ? 

Which of these is longest ? Which highest ? 

What outpost of the Allegha'nies in New England ? 

Which are the two loftiest summits of the Allegha'nies ? The height 
and situation of each ? 

Which is the lowest portion of this system ? 

How far is the Blue Ridge from the Atlantic ? 

What is the average breadth of the Allegha'nies ? 

On which side is the shortest slope ? 

How is the eastern slope divided ? 

Under what names is the Blue Ridge continued north-eastward from 
the Pennsylvania Kne ? 

What determines the course of the River St. Lawrence ? 

Trace the watershed south of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence. 

What is the general direction of the rivers flowing fr'om the Atlantic 
decHvity ? 

Name the five river systems of this continent. 

From what elevation do the head waters of the Mississippi flow ? 

Wliat are the latitude and longitude of this " height of land " ? 

Which are the chief tributaries of the Mississippi from the Allegha'nies ? 

Is their cmTcnt swift or gentle ? And why ? 

What affluents of the Mississippi flow from the Rocky Momitains ? 

Trace the watershed which divides the head waters of the Mackenzie 
River and Hudson's Bay from those of the St. Lawr«ice and Mississippi. 

By what is the western slope of the Aliegha'nies characterized ? 

What marks the eastern slope of the Rocky ^lountains ? 

Wliat basin is formed by these two slopes ? 

From Avhat mountain knot does the Ri'o del Nor'te flow ? 

What river basins west of the Rocky Mountains ? 

What two noted gaps in the Californian coast range ? 

What forms the basin of tlie Col'ville River ? 

Which is the most extensive plateau in North America ? Describe it. 

What contrast is presented by the mouths of the Mississippi and Mac- 
kenzie Rivers ? 

How do you account for this ? 

Which of the mountain ranges rise above the snow line in the temper- 
ate zone ? 



68 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

What is there remarkable in the Great Salt Lake basin ? 

What rivers flow from the mountain knot of Frem'ont ? 

Which are the principal summits in this mountain knot ? 

What peaks in the Rocky Mountains north of the knot ? 

What volcanoes in Mexico ? 

Which are the prominent peaks in the Califomian coast range ? 

Describe the highest mountain in North America. 

What three branches of the Rocky Mountains run northward from the 
Isthmus of Tehuan'tepec ? 

Which is the main chain ? 

What branch passes off" from the eastern border of the table land of 
Mexico ? 

What river basins occupy the northern declivity of North America ? 

What bay or inland sea does this region include ? 

What rivers and lakes belong to the basin of Hudson's Bay ? 

What rivers and lakes belong to the basin of the Mackenzie ? 

What lakes and rivers are comprised within the basin of the St. Law- 
rence ? 

What rivers belong to the basin of the Mississippi ? 

What are the chief points of difference between the eastern and west- 
ern slopes of the Rocky Mountains ? 

Difference between the Rocky Mountains and coast range ? 

Where are their crests respectively below the snow line ? 

Where do we find the greatest body of fresh water in this continent ? 

By what channels do the waters from the interior reach the seas ? 

Into what sections is the continent divided by the Rocky Mountains and 
the Allegha'nies ? 

Which is the most extensive of the plains ? 

What river basins does it include ? 

To what basin does Lake George, New York, belong ? 

Into what sections is Central America divided ? 

What does the position of Lake Nicara'gua indicate with regard to the 
reliefs of Central America ? 

What appears to have determined the contour and relative position of 
the Greater Antilles' ? 

What are the comparative areas of the three great watersheds or de- 
clivities of the United States — the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Mis- 
sissippi ? 

How does the course of the Mississippi River affect its commerce ? 

Which of the cities, Quebec or Montreal', occupies the higher ground ? 

How is it determined ? 



CHAPTER VII. 

SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

Preparatory Exercises on the Map of South America. 

209. How is South America bounded ? 

Of what form is the general outline of South America ? 

Which is the most northern cape ? The most eastern ? 

Which is the most southern cape ? The most western ? 

Between what extremes of latitude does South America extend ? 

Between what meridians ? 

In what zone is the greater part of the continent ? 

What bodies of water on the north ? 

What branches of the Caribbe'an Sea indent the coast ? 

What ocean on the east ? 

What branches of the Atlantic indent the coast F 

What ocean on the west ? 

What indentations are formed by the Pacific ? 

By what strait is the continent terminated on the south ? 

Name the chief islands on the north. 

What large island next south of the Strait of Magellan ? 

Where is Cape Gale^nas ? Cape Pa Via ? 

What cape of Brazil' near the tropic of Capricorn ? 

What capes at the mouth of the Ri'o de la Pla'ta ? 

Where is Cape Blan'co ? 

What peninsulas along the coasts of Patago'nia ? 

What islands along the western coast of Patago'nia ? 

Where are Falk'land Islands ? 

Where is Cape St. Roque' ? 

What islands off the coast of Chi'le ? 

What island near the coast of CM'le ? 

In what zone is the southern portion of the continent ? 

What poHtical states border on the northern coast ? 

What states on the Atlantic ? 

What states on the Pacific ? 

What states between Bufi'nos Ay'res, Brazil', and Uruguay' ? 

Which states are crossed by the equator ? 

Which by the tropic of Capricorn ? 

How is the Island of Mara'jo, or Joan'nes, situated? 

Where is the Gulf of Darien' ? 

What lake and gulf in the north-west of Venezue'la ? 

Where is the Bay of All Saints ? 

Where is Cape Fri'o ? 

What important city about 159 miles west of Cape Fri'o ? 



70 



ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



SOUTH AMEEICA. 




SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 71 



§ 1. Extent and General Features of South America. 

210. South America is one of the three southern conti- 
nents, remarkable for its richness and fertihty, and the 
majesty of its natural features. Its shape is triangular, and 
its coast line regular. It is bounded on the north by the 
Caribbe'an Sea, and is joined to Central America by the 
Isthmus of Panama'. It has the Atlantic Ocean on the east, 
the Pacific Ocean on the west, and terminates in a point at 
the south. 

211. South America extends from 12° N. lat. to 56° S. lat. 
and from 35° to 82° W. Ion. It is estimated to contain about 
8,200,000 square miles. Its coast line is 13,600 miles, or 1 
to every 603 square miles of surface. It comprises the na- 
tional divisions of Kew Grena'da, Venezuela, Guia^na, Ecua- 
dor', Peru', Brazil', Boli'via, Paraguay', Uruguay', Bue'nos 
Ay'res, Chi'le, and Patago'nia. 

212. The coast is but slightly indented by the ocean. In 
the north are the Gulf of Darien' and Gulf of Maracay'bo ; 
in the east the Bay of All Saints ; in the west the Gulf of 
Guayaquil' and Bay of Cho'co. The greatest expansion of 
land is within the tropics. The colossal range of mountains 
which traverse the continent of South America from north 
to south, and the almost boundless plains which occupy so 
large a portion of its east^n surface, form the two most re- 
markable features. 



§ 2. Mountain Systems of South America. 

213. South America comprises three separate mountain 
systems, — the An'des, the Brazil'ian Mountains, and the 
Pari'ma Mountains. 

214. The Andes System, which is the longest and one of 
the loftiest in the world, runs the whole length of the con- 
tinent in a continuous line of 4180 miles, in the direction of 
the meridians, and from 50 to 150 miles distant from the 
Pacific coast. It is remarkable for the numerous active vol- 
canoes along its whole course. 

215. From its southern extremity to about the 20th degree 

210. South America. Shape and coast line. Boundaries. — 211. Extent. 
Area. Length of coast line. National divisions. — 212. Indentations of the 
coast. Greatest expanse of land. Two remarkable features. — 213. Three 
mountain systems. — 214. The Andes system. General view. — 215. From 



72 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

of south latitude, it is merely one grand and continuous 
range of mountains ; but north of that the chain divides into 
longitudinal ridges, which enclose a series of valleys or table 
lands, forming so many basins, enclosed at various points by 
transverse groups, or mountain knots, or by single ranges 
crossing between them. There are five principal knots, 
namely, the knot of Por'co and Poto'si, in 20° S. lat. ; the 
knot of Cus'co, in 14° S. lat. ; the knot of Huanu'co and 
Pas'co, in 10° S. lat.; the knot of Loja, (Lo'ha,) in 4° S. 
lat. and the knot of Piis'to, in li° N. lat. 

216. The great chain of the Andes first commences at 
Cape Horn, the most southern point of the Tier'ra del Fue'go 
islands. Mount Darwin, 6800 feet in height, is on the prin- 
cipal island. This group of mountainous islands is cut off 
from the main land by the Strait of Magellan. 

217. In Patagonia the Andes rise to 8030 feet. The Pa- 
cific washes their base, which is a high, precipitous, rocky 
coast, rent into chasms. Continental islands line the coast, 
forming an exterior mountain range, whose summits appear 
rising above the sea. 

218. The Chilian Andes, which follow, are about 80 miles 
across, and toward the ocean are flanked by extensive 
plains from 1200 to 2000 feet elevation, from which the ridge 
rises with a very steep acclivity. There are several passes 
across this ridge : the most important is that of a great line 
of road between the city of Bue'nos Ay'res and Valparai'so. 
The Peak of Aconca'gua, near tlie latter city, rises to the 
height of 23,910 feet, which is believed to be the highest in 
South America. 

219. North of the knot of Por'co the chain divides into two 
ridges, and bending towards the north-west, encloses the valley 
of JDesaguade'ro. In the eastern ridge, or Cordille'ra Keal', 
are the lofty summits of Sora'ta, 21,290 feet, and Illima'ni, 
21,150 feet in height. In the western, or Cordille'ra of the 
coast, there are other towering summits. In the knot of 
Cijs'co the ancient city of CAs'co was situated. Four roads 
led from the city to different parts of the empire, all crossing 
mountain passes of more than 12,000 feet elevation. 

220. At the knot of Pas'co and Huanii'co the chain of the 

the southern point to the 20th degree south latitude. North of the 20th 
parallel. Principal knots. — 216. First beginning of the Andes chain. 
Mount Dar\vin. Separation of these islands from the main land. — 217. 
The Patagonian Andes. Continental islands. — 218. The Chilian Andes. 
Highest peak of the Andes. — 219. Division north of the knot of Porco. 
Remarkable summits. Knot of Cusco. — 220. Division in the knot of Pasco 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP SOUTH AMERICA. 73 

Andes is divided into three ranges, forming the valleys of 
the Upper Maranon', the Hnalla'ga, and the Ucaya'le Rivers ; 
and from the mountain knot of Lo'ja the chain divides into 
two great longitudinal ridges or cordilleras, passing through 
Ecuador' to the knot of Pas'to, in New Grena'da. These 
ridges enclose a vast longitudinal valley, wliich is divided 
into three basins, of which the valley or table land of Qui'to 
is one of extraordinary beauty. 

221. At the knot of Pas'to the Andes are again separated 
into three ridges : the western, or Cordille'ra de Cho'co, 
which is the main chain, passes towards the Isthmus of 
Panama' ; the eastern, or Cordille'ra del Sum'ma Paz, passes 
north-east through New Grena'da, along the coast of Vene- 
zuela to Cape Pa'ria; and the central ridge, or Cordille'ra 
de Quin'diu, runs north between the Magdale'na and Cau'ca 
Rivers. The Peak of Toli'ma is the highest of its summits, 
being 18,000 feet. 

222. The Brazilian System of mountains embraces those 
chains which extend from south-west to north-east along the 
Atlantic coast. The Sier'ra do Miir, or maritime range, 
running from Uruguay' River to Cape St. Roque', and, parallel 
to this, the Sier'ra do Espinha'90, enclose the basin of the 
San Francis'co. Itdm'be, the highest of the Brazilian Andes, 
(5960 feet,) is in the latter chain. 

223. A transverse chain, Sier'ra dos Verten'tes, begins 
south of Villa Ri'ca, and, ranning in a tortuous line, termi- 
nates near the junction of the Be'ni and Mamo're Rivers. It 
forms the watershed of the tributaries of the San Francis'co 
and Amazon' on the north, and those of the Ri'o de la Pla'ta 
on the south. Its greatest elevation is 5830 feet. 

224. The Pari'ma System of mountains is an irregular group 
scattered over a table land not above 2000 feet elevation, 
extending from west to east, and encircled by the Orino'co, 
Cassiquia'ri, Ri'o Ne'gro, Amazon', and the Atlantic Ocean. 
This system is wholly unconnected with the Andes. Rising 
from the south bank of the Lower Orino'co, it ascends by four 
successive terraces to undulating plains. 

225. The Sier'ra Pari'me is the principal chain, extending 
from the River Me'ta across the plains of Esmeralda. This 

and Hnanuco. River valleys. Division between the knot of Loja and the 
knot of Pasto. Enclosed valley. — 221. Division at the knot of Pasto. Cor- 
dillera of Choco. Of Summa Paz. Of Quindiu. Peak of Tolima. — 222. Bra- 
zilian system. Parallel ranges. Peak of Itambe. — 223. Sierra dos Vertentes. 
Watershed. — 224. Parima system of mountains. Distinct from the Andes. 
Terraces. — 225. The Sierra Parime. Other ridges. Loftiest summit of the 
7 



74 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

chain rises abruptly, and forms the watershed between the 
tributaries of the Orino'co and the Amazon'. The other 
ridges, though not of great height, are very rugged, and are 
separated by plains, savannas, and immense forests. The 
peak of the Cer'ro Dui'da, 7149 feet in height, is the loftiest 
summit of this system. 

226. There are, altogether, upwards of thirty volcanoes in 
South America, in a state of activity. They all belong to 
the Andes, and consist of three distinct series — the series 
of Chi'le, of Peru' and Boli'via, and of Qui'to. The loftiest 
are the Sahd'ma, 22,350 feet, and Gualatie'ri, 21,960 feet, 
which are in the Peruvian series. 



§ 3. Plateaus of South America. 

227. The table land, or Valley of Desaguade'ro, is enclosed 
between the Cordille'ra Real' and the Cordille'ra of the coast, 
at an elevation of nearly 13,000 feet above the level of the 
ocean. It is from 30 to 60 miles broad, and about 400 miles 
in length. The city of Poto'si and Lake Titica'ca are situ- 
ated in this valley, and in the eastern range are the lofty 
summits of Sora'ta and Illima'ni. 

228. The Peruvian table land extends from the knot of 
Ciis'co to the knot of Lo'ja, in Ecuador'. The plateau of 
Qui'to, in Ecuador', extends from the knot of Lo'ja to that 
of Pas'to, 270 miles in length and from 15 to 30 in breadth, 
with an elevation of 9500 feet. It is clothed with the ver- 
dure of perpetual spring, and is surrounded by some of the 
loftiest volcanoes in the world. No less than eleven snow- 
clad summits are visible from the plain, among which are 
Chimbora'zo, 21,424 feet, Antisa'na, 19,137 feet, Cotopax'i, 
18,875 feet, Tungura'gua, 16,424 feet, and Pichin'cha, 15,924 
feet. 

229. The Brazilian table land occupies half the empire, 
with a part of Uruguay'. Its form is triangular, one side ex- 
tending along the shores of the Atlantic, from Ri'o de la 
Pla'ta nearly to the equator, thence west to the junction of 
the Be'ni and Mamo're Rivers. It is not over 2500 feet ele- 
vation. 

Parima. — 226. Of volcanoes. The highest. — 227. Plateau of Desaguadero. 
City of Potosi and Lake Titicaca. Mounts Sorata and Illimani. — 228. Peru- 
vian table land. Plateau of Quito. Volcanoes visible from the plain. — 229 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP SOUTH AMERICA. T5 



§ 4. Declivities and Plains of South Ameeica. 

230. The Lowlands of South America may be divided 
into three sections, corresponding to the three great rivers — 
the Amazon', the Orino'co, and La Plii'ta. 

231. The great plain of the Amazon' embraces all the 
central portion of South America, extending from the foot 
of the Andes to the sea and the mountains of Brazil'. It 
comprises a large portion of Brazil', with parts of New Gre- 
na'da, Ecuador', Perd', and Boli'via. Its Kmits include nearly- 
all the basin of the Amazon', with the lower parts of the 
Madei'ra and Tocantins'. 

232. A large part of this plain is occupied by the sel'vas 
of the Amazon', which extend 1500 miles along the river, 
varying in width from 350 to 800 miles. The surface is more 
uneven than the pampas of the south, and covered with dense 
forests. North of the selvas are some marshy savannas, and 
south are some grassy steppes, but which, compared with the 
selvas, are insignificant. 

233. The Lla'nos of the Orino'co, in New Grena'da and 
Venezue'la, extend from the Caque'ta River to the mouth 
of the Orino'co, along the Guavia're and Me'ta Rivers, and 
are of a dead level. They form a desert in the dry season ; 
but in the wet season hundreds of square miles are inun- 
dated. These plains are so connected with those of the 
Amazon that the Cassiquia're flows from the Orino'co into 
the Ri'o Ne'gro, a tributary of the Amazon. 

234. The plain of the Ri'o de la Pla'ta is bounded on the 
west by the Andes, and on the east by the mountains of 
Brazil' and the Atlantic. It embraces the south-west part 
of Brazil', Paraguay', Bue'nos Ay 'res, and part of Patag5'nia. 

235. A large portion of this plain is known as the pampas 
of La Pla'ta, which are vast plains of grass, without trees or 
mountains. Some parts are swampy, others are barren, ex- 
cepting in the wet season, when there is a rich covering of 
grass. The pampas sink to a low level along the foot of the 
Andes, where the streams from the mountains collect in large 
lakes and swamps. 

236. Eastern Patago'nia is a succession of gravelly plains 



Brazilian table land. — 230. Three sections of lowlands. — 231. Plain of the 
Amazon. — 232. The selvas. Country north and south of the selvas. — 233. 
The Llanos of the Orinoco. Thek condition in the dry and the wet seasons. 
Connection with the plains of the Amazon. — 234. Plain of the La Plata. — 
23o. Pampas of La Plata. Foot of the Andes. — 236. Eastern Patagonia. — 



76 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOORAPHT. 

or terraces, at higher and higher levels, separated by long 
lines of cliffs. The ascent is small, for at the foot of the 
Andes the highest of these platforms is not over 3000 feet 
above the ocean level. The plains are here and there inter- 
sected by a ravine or a stream, the waters of which do not 
fertilize the soil. The desert extends to a few miles north 
of the Colora'do. 

237. The Andes descend to the eastern plains in Bue'nos 
Ay'res by a series of cnltivated terraces. That of Tiicuman', 
2500 feet elevation, is the garden of the state. On the west- 
ern slope of the Andes httle or no rain falls, except at their 
most southern extremity. That portion of Western Bolivia 
which lies between the Andes and the Pacific is the Desert 
of Ataca'ma, in some parts of which no plant, no bird, no in- 
sect whatever is seen. 



§ 5. River Systems of South America. 

238. There are no large rivers flowing into the Pacific 
Ocean from South America, because the vast and lofty range 
of the Andes is on the western side of the continent, and 
at no great distance from the coast. Nearly all the waters 
of this continent flow into the Atlantic. 

239. At the northern extremity of the Andes three rivers, 
parallel to each other, flow northerly into the sea — the Mag- 
dale 'na, the Cau'ca, and the Atra'to. These drain the val- 
leys in the north-west portion of New Grena'da. In the 
eastern part of Brazil' the St. Francis'co River drains the 
valley between the mountain ranges parallel to the coast, 
keeping a northerly course till it reaches the 10th degree of 
south latitude, where it bends eastward and flows into the 
Atlantic. In the far south the Colora'do and Ne'gro flow 
into the Atlantic. 

240. South America has three grand river systems : first, 
the Orino'co ; second, the Amazon' ; and third, the La Pla'ta, 
all of which pour their waters into the Atlantic Ocean. 

241. The basins of these three rivers are separated in 
their lower portions by the mountains and highlands of the 
Pari'ma and Brazil'. The central parts of the basins of all 

237. The Andes in Buenos Aj^es. Western slope of the Andes. Desert of 
Atacama. — 238. Why are there no large rivers flowing into the Pacific from 
South America } Into what do most of the waters of this continent flow ? — 
239. Three rivers at the northern extremity of the Andes. River St. Francis- 
co. The Colorado and Negro, — 24G. Three grand river systems of this conti- 
uent. — 241. Their basins how separated in their lower portions. Central parts 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 77 

three, towards the foot of the Andes, form an extensive level, 
and are only divided from one another by imperceptible ele- 
vations in the plains, barely sufficient to form the watersheds 
between their tributaries. This peculiar structure is the cause 
of the natural canal of the Cassiquia're, which connects the 
Upper Orino'co and Ri'o Ne'gro. 

242. The Orinoco, the first of the great river systems of 
South America, rises in the Sier'ra del Pari'ma, 200 miles 
east of the Peak of Dui'da, and runs westerly until it receives 
the Guavia're from the Andes. It then runs north, receiving 
the waters of the Me'ta and Apti're coming from the west, 
and then, turning eastward, holds this course till it flows 
through several mouths into the Atlantic Ocean. The Ori- 
nd'co is navigable for 1000 miles at all seasons. The Me'ta 
may be ascended to the foot of the Andes. The basin of 
the Orino'co has an area of 300,000 square miles. 

243. The Amazon, forming the second great river system 
of South America, drains the eastern declivity of the Andes, 
from the equator to the 20th degree of south latitude. The 
Tungura'gua, or Maranon', its highest source, flows from Lake 
Laurico'cha in a plain 96 miles north-west of Li'ma, and 60 
miles from the Pacific. It takes at first a northerly course till 
it reaches Jaen', in 5^° S. lat. ; thence it pursues an easterly 
direction of nearly 4000 miles to the Atlantic. The tide flows 
up 400 miles, and the river is navigable to the foot of the 
^des. More than 20 superb rivers, navigable almost to 
their sources, pour their waters into it, besides numberless 
small streams. On its southern bank it receives the Hua- 
lla'ga and Ucayale from Peru ; the Madei'ra, its largest tribu- 
tary, from Boli'via ; and the Topay'os, Xin'gu, and Tocan- 
tins', from Brazil'. Its northern affluents are the Putumay'o, 
Caque'ta, and Ri'o Ne'gro. The Amazon and its tributaries 
drain an area of 2,500,000 square miles. 

244. The Rio de la Plata and its tributaries comprise the 
third great river system of South America. The estuary of 
this river is about 185 miles in length, and nowhere less than 
30 miles in breadth, expanding at its entrance into the At- 
lantic to 150 miles. It is shallow and loaded with mud, 
which discolors the ocean for many miles from its mouth. 

of the basins. The Cassiquiare River. — 242. Describe the system of the 
Orinoco. Area of the basin. — 243. Describe the Amazon. Its first course. 
From Jaen to its mouth. Tide and na\'igation. Navigable tributaries of the 
Amazon. Txibutaries from the south. From the north. Area of the basin. — 
244. The third river system of South America. Describe the Rio de la Plata. 
The Uruguay. The Parana. The Paraguay. The western tributaiies of the 

7* 



t^ ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGBAPHT. 

The La Plata is formed by the union of the Uruguay' and 
Parana'. The Uruguay' rises on the western decHvity of the 
BraziHan Mountains, and takes a south-westerly course of 
about 800 miles. The Parana' also rises on the same decliv- 
ity, runs south-westerly for about 1000 miles, till it receives 
the Paraguay', when it bends towards the south to enter the 
La Plata. The Paraguay' rises from a chain of lakes on the 
southern slope of the Campo Parei'cis, in Brazil', and pur- 
suing a southerly course through nearly 14 degrees of 
latitude, joins the Parana' under the 27th parallel. The 
principal western tributaries of the Paraguay' are the Pilco- 
ma'yo and Verme'jo, both of which rise in the Andes of 
Bolivia. The Sala'do flows from the Andes in the north- 
west of Bue'nos Ay'res, through a south-easterly course of 
800 miles, and joins the Parana' in 32"* S. lat. 



§ 6. Lakes of South America. 

245. The limited size of the principal lakes of South 
America presents a strong contrast with those of North 
America. There are many small lakes in the mountain 
valleys and table lands of the Andes, generally of consider- 
able depth. 

246. The great fresh water Lake of Titica'ca, the largest 
and most celebrated in South America, is situated near the 
north-west frontier of Boli'via, shut up in a broad valley, at 
an elevation of 13,000 feet. It has an area of more than 
2000 square miles, and is more than 120 fathoms deep in 
many places, and surrounded by splendid scenery. It is fed 
by streams from both ridges of the Andes, and has an outlet 
through the River Desaguade'ro, the waters of which are lost 
by evaporation and infiltration in the sandy soil through 
which it flows, and finally in the marsh of Aulla'gas. 

247. There is a range of lakes along the eastern base of 
the Andes, but the greater part of them are mere lagoons, 
or marshes, some very large, which inundate the country to 
a great extent in the time of the tropical rains. 

248. There appears to be a deep hollow in the surface of 
the earth at the point where Boli'via, Brazil', and Para- 
guay' meet, in which lies the Lake Xaray'es, extending on 
each side of the Biver Paraguay'; but, like many South Amer- 

Paraguay. The Salado. — 245. Remark on the South American lakes. Lakes 
of the Andes. — 246. Lake Titicaca. Its area and depth. Sources and outlet. 
~ 247. Lakes at the base of the Andes. — 248. — Lake Xarayes. Lakes in 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP SOUTH AMEBICA. 79 

ican lakes, it is not permanent. Salt and fresh water lakes 
are numerous on the plains of the Ri'o de la Pla'ta, and near 
the Andes of Patago'nia. 



§ 7. Geology of South America. 

249. One of the most singular circumstances in the forma- 
tion of the Andes chain is the enormous thickness and height 
of what geologists call the secondary formation. Humboldt 
asserts that beds of coal have been found in the neighbor- 
hood of Santa Fe, at an elevation of 8650 feet above the 
level of the sea ; and even at the height of 14,700 feet, near 
Huanii'co. The plains of Bogota', which are about 9000 
feet in elevation, are covered with sandstone, gypsum, shell 
lim-estone, and in some places rock salt. Fossil shells have 
been found in Peru at 12,800 feet in one place, and at 14,120 
feet in another, where they were also accompanied with 
sandstone. The basalt of Pichincha, near the city of Quito, 
has an elevation of 15,500 feet; while granite, which crowns 
the loftiest mountains of Europe, is not found higher than 
11,500 feet in the Andes, and is scarcely known in Ecuador 
or Peru. The lofty summits of Sorata, Chimborazo, and 
others consist entirely of porphyry, which constitutes a mass 
of 10,000 or 12,000 feet in thickness, together with an enor- 
mous body of quartz, of 9500 feet thick. The Chilian Andes 
differ in their composition from the other parts of the chain ; 
for it is in the cordillera of this part that vast blocks of crystal 
are found, capable of being formed into columns six or 
seven feet in length. The pampas of Bue'nos Ay 'res are 
entirely alluvial. Granite prevails to the extent of 2000 
miles along the coast of Brazil', and, with si'enite, forms the 
base of the table land. The superstructure of the table 
land consists of metamorphic and old igneous rocks, sand- 
stone, clay slate, limestone, in which are large caverns with 
bones of extinct animals, and alluvial soil. To'paz, am'e- 
thyst, and other gems are abundant. Brazil' produces more 
diamonds than any other country. 

the plains of La Plata. — 249. Geology. Formation of the Ancles. Basalt of 
the Pichincha. Granite. Sorata, Chimborazo, &c. Chilian Andes. Pampas 
of Buenos Ayres. Brazilian coast. Supersti-ucture of the table lands. 



80 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



Table of Minerals of South America. 

Diamonds. — Brazil'. 

Other Pkecious Stones. — Brazil', New Grena'da, Chi'le, and Peru'. 

Gold. —New Grena'da, Ecuador', Peru', Boli'via, Chi'le, Brazil', and LaPla'ta. 

Silver. —Boli'via, Peru', Chi'le, and La Pla'ta. 

Tin. — Peru'. 

Merctjry. — Peru'. 

Copper. — Peru' and Chi'le. 

Iron. — Brazil' and Peru'. 

Coal. — Peru' and Chi'le. 

Salt. — La Pla'ta, Brazil', Venezue'la, New Grena'da, Boli'via, and Peru'. 

Saltpetre. — Peru'. 



§ 8. Questions for Review. 

250. What general form of contdur' has South America ? 

What features in the reliefs of the continent appear to have determined 
its outline ? 

Name the several systems of highlands. 

Which is the chief system ? 

Towards which ocean is its long slope ? 

Which are the five principal mountain knots of the Andes ? 

What and where is the loftiest summit of the Andes ? 

Is the chain single or double between the Straits of Magel'lan and the 
luiot of Por'co ? 

Which is the most important pass across the Chilian Andes ? 

Between what knots are the Cordill^'ra Real' and the Cordille'ra of the 
coast ? 

What valley is enclosed between these ridges ? 

Which are the principal summits in the eastern ridge ? Their respec- 
tive heights ? 

Describe the knot of Cus'co. 

What important river vallej'^s between the ridges north of the knot of 
Pas'co and Huanu'co ? 

How is the plateau of Qui'to situated ? Its elevation ? 

Name the principal ridges of the Brazilian Mountains. Their highest 
point. 

What watershed is formed by the Sier'ra dos Verten'tes ? Its greatest 
elevation ? 

How many and what ridges in the northern portion of the Andes ? 

Which of them passes towards the Isthmus of Panama' ? 

Describe the Pari'ma system of mountains. 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP SOUTH AMEBIC A. 81 

Which is the principal ridge ? 

Which the highest point ? 

In which mountain system are the principal volcanoes ? 

How many distinct series of volcanoes, and in which state is each ? 

Which are the two highest ? 

What is the elevation of the valley of Desaguad^'ro above the level of 
the sea ? 

What lake and city are situated in this valley ? 

What five noted summits are visible from the plateau of Qui'to ? 

By what is the intervemng space between the Andes, the Pari'ma, and 
the Brazilian Mountains occupied ? 

Into what three basins are these lowlands divided ? 

What states and countries are included in the plain of the Amazon ? 

What are the selvas ? 

Describe the lla'nos of tlj^ Orino'co. 

What are the limits of the plain of the La Pla'ta ? 

What states does it include ? * 

What are the pampas ? 

What desert places in South America ? 

What is the area of the basin of the Orino'co ? 

What rivers belong to this basin ? 

What northern rivers belong to the basin of the Amazon ? 

What is there remarkable in the watershed between the Orino'co and 
Amazon basins ? 

What rivers from the south belong to the basin of the Amazon ? 

Which is the most western source of the Amazon ? 

What is the area of the basin of the Amazon ? 

What two large rivers unite to form the La Pla'ta ? 

What other rivers belong to this basin ? 

What three rivers from the Andes flow north into the Caribbe'an Sea ? 

Describe the St. Francis'co River. 

What rivers flow into the Atlantic south of the R.i'o de la Pla'ta ? 

What becomes of the sm-plus waters of the Lake Titica'ca ? 

What peculiarity marks many of the lakes of South America ? 

Why are there no large rivers on the west of the Andes ? 

How far is the Amazon navigable ? 

Between what parallels does the Amazon hold its course ? 

Between what parallels is the broader portion of the continent situated ? 

Does this portion consist of highland or lowland chiefly ? 



CHAPTER VIII. 

SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE. 
Preparatory Exercises on the Map or Europe. 

251. What ocean north of Eu'rope ? West ? 
What continent joins it on the east ? 
By what branches of the Atlantic is it indented ? 
What passage leads into each of these ? 
What waters penetrate the northern coast ? 
Name the branches of the Bal'tic Sea. 
Name the branches of the Mediterranean. 
What waters separate Great Britain and Ireland ? 
Chief islands in the Mediterranean ? 
Where is Iceland situated ? 
What separates England from France ? 
What fom: peninsulas in the south of Europe ? 
What five seas in the south of Europe ? 
How is the Spanish peninsula bounded ? 
How is the Italian peninsula bounded ? 
What is the situation of Greece ? 
What is the situation of Crime'a ? 
What peninsulas in the west and north-west of Europe ? 
What states occupy the Scandina'vian peninsula ? 
Of what state is the Jut'land peninsula a part ? 
Which are the chief capes of Norway ? 
What and where are the Skag'er Hack and Cat'tegat ? 
Where are Capes Or'tegal and Finisterre' ? 
What capes south of Por'tugal ? 
Where are Capes Spartiven'to and Pas'saro ? 
What cape south of Greece ? 
What islands west of Greece ? 
Between what parallels of latitude is Europe ? 
Between what meridians ? 
What emphe occupies the east of Europe ? 
What states join Russia ? 
What states in Western Europe ? 
Where is Portugal ? 
What countries surround the Bal'tic ? 
How is the Bay of Bis^cay situated ? 
What countries do the British Isles include ? 

(82) 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE. 83 

"What countries around the North Sea ? 
What inland sea on the south-east of Europe ? 
What groups of islands west and north of Scotland ? ' 
What group west of Norway ? 
Chief islands in the Bal'tic ? 
Where are the Sea of Kii'ra and White Sea ? 
What and where is the Naze ? 
What group of islands east of Spain ? 
Where is the Gulf of Gen'oa ? 
What large islands due south of Gen'oa ? 
Where is Sicily ? 
What strait on the east ? 
Trace the waters of the Don River to the ocean. 
What straits or sounds lead into the Bal'tic Sea ? 
What countries around the Archipel'ago ? 

What sections of the United States correspond with the south of Eu- 
rope in latitude ? 



§ 1. Extent and General Features of Europe. 

252. Europe appears as an appendage of Asia, projecting 
westward, partially separated from it by w^ater, but united 
with it by the U'ral and Cauca'sian Mountains. It is bound- 
ed on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the west by the 
Atlantic, and on the south by the Mediterranean and Black 
Seas. The eastern boundary is formed by the U'ral Moun- 
tains, U'ral River, and Cas'pian Sea, which separate it from 
Asia. It extends from 36° to 71° N. lat., and from 9J° W. 
to 67° E. Ion. Its surface is estimated at 3,900,000 square 
miles, and its coast line at 17,000 miles, or 1 mile of coast for 
every 229 miles of surface. Europe embraces the national 
divisions of Rris'sia, Swe'den, Norway, Prtis'sia, Austria, 
Denmark, Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, Spain, Por- 
tugal, Switzerland, Italy, Turkey, and Greece, on the conti- 
nent, and the British Isles lying westward. 

253. The mass of Europe is deeply indented in all parts 
by the ocean, and by inland seas. The Grecian and Scandi- 
na'vian peninsulas seem to be made up of many smaller pen- 
insulas. The inland seas, and the portions of the ocean in- 
cluded within the outer limits of Europe, form nearly half its 
surface. The Atlantic, penetrating the western border, forms 
the North Sea, Bal'tic Sea, Gulf of Both'nia, Gulf of Fiu- 

252. Europe. Of Europe in relation to Asia. Boundaries. Extent. Area. 
Coast line. National divisions. — 253. Indentations of the coast. Proportion 



84 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

land, Gulf of Ri^ga, English Channel, Bay of Bis'cay ; and 
by the Strait of Gibraltar forms the Mediterranean Sea, Gulf 
of Ly^ons, Gulf of Ge'noa, Gulf of Ta'ranto, the Adriatic, 
Grecian ArghipeFago, Mar'mora, Black, and Az'of Seas. The 
Arctic Ocean in the north forms the White Sea, Tcheska'ia 
Gulf, and Sea of Ka'ra. 

254. In Europe, instead of vast table lands and chains of 
mountains separating it into distinct regions, we find the 
highlands and lowlands intermingled. Valleys and streams 
intersect all the highlands, and plains divide the mountains 
into groups of moderate size. The surface of Europe may 
conveniently be considered under four principal divisions, 
viz., the Central Highlands, or European portion of the great 
mountain zone of the old world ; the Southern Peninsulas ; 
the Northern Highlands ; and the Great Europe'an Plain. 



§ 2. The Centeal Highlands of EuRorE. 

255. The Europe 'an portion of the great mountain zone 
comprises three principal groups or systems, viz., the Pyre- 
ne'an, the Al'pine, and the Balkan' systems. 

256. The Pyrenees Mountains extend from the Bay of 
Biscay to the Mediterranean Sea, a distance of 270 miles. 
The breadth of the range is about 60 miles ; the average 
height is nearly 8000 feet, being higher in the east than in 
the west. On the French declivity the descent is steep, 
rugged, and notched. The highland is continued through the 
south of France, at a much lower elevation, by chains of 
hills and table lands. The most remarkable of the French 
system are the mountains of Auvergne', and the Cevennes', 
which reach the right bank of the Rhone, and form the link 
between the more elevated masses of Western and Eastern 
Europe. 

257. The Alpine System constitutes the highest and most 
extensive mountain range in Europe, if we except the Cau- 
ca'sian Mountains, which lie on the southern boundary be- 
tween it and Asia. They extend from the Rhone, in France, 
to Dahna'tia, on the east of the Adriatic Sea : hence they 
occupy the space between the 5th and 18th degrees of east 

of water surface. Branches of the Atlantic. Of the Arctic. — 254. Disposition 
of the highlands and lowlands. Intersections. Four divisions of its surface. — 
255. Three groups of the central highlands. — 256. The Pyrenees. Mountains 
of France. — 257. Of the Alps. Their extent. Their course between the 
Rhone and the Po to Mont Blanc. Valleys of this portion. The valleys as 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE. 85' 

longitude, forming a vast semicircular bulwark on the north 
of Italy and the Adriat'ic. Between the basin of the Po 
River and the valley of the Rhone the mountain mass reaches 
from the shore of the Mediterranean, bending round by the 
west and north, to Mont Blanc, in Savoy'. The valleys to 
the east and west branch off at right angles from the water- 
shed. Those to the east are short, straight, and deep, termi- 
nating in the basin of the Po ; those to the west are of much 
greater length, and rather winding. The peculiar disposition 
of these valleys has rendered the communication between 
France and Italy comparatively easy. The roads follow the 
valleys up to the watershed, and have then only to traverse 
one high ridge. Three great carriage roads lead over it : the 
southern one is the road of Mount GeneVre, 6197 feet at the 
summit ; the middle road is that of Mount Cenis', 6784 feet, 
and is by far the most used of all the roads over the Alps ; 
the northern carriage road is that of the Little St. Bernard'; 
its highest point is 7200 feet. 

Alps. 




Section of Europe from the Baltic to the Apennines. 



B, S. — Baltic Sea. 

B. M. — Brocken Mountain. 

E. G. — Erz Gebu-'ge. 



Jura Mountains, 

Alps. 

Valley of the Po. 



258. At Mont Blanc the direction of the range changes to 
east north-east, and runs through the Grisons' and Tyr'ol to 
the Great Glock'ner, in 40° 1' N. lat. and 12° 43' E. Ion., 
where the higher Alps terminate a course of 420 miles long. 
East of Mont Blanc two high ridges enclose the valley of 
Valaise'. In the chain on the north of this valley the greatest 
Europe'an gla'cier is found, not far west of the source of the 
Rhone. Here a great part of the chain rises above the snow 
line, and is always covered with ice, and comprises an area 
of 200 square miles. 

259. The most elevated part of this chain lies between the 

avenues between France and Italy. Carriage roads over the Alps. — 258. Course 
of the higher Alps from Mont Blanc. Valley of Valaise. The great glacier. — 
259. Space between the Col de la Seigne and the Simplon. The central ridge. — 



$6; ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Col de la Seigiie and the STm'plon. The highest mountains 
in Europe are comprised within this space, which is not more 
than 60 miles long, and where Mont Blanc, the highest of all, 
rises 15,759 feet above the level of the sea. The central 
ridge of the higher Alps is jagged with peaks, pyramids, and 
needles of bare and almost perpendicular rock, rising from 
fields of perpetual snow and rivers of ice to an elevation of 
14,000 feet 

260. Many parallel chains and groups send their flanks far 
into the lower grounds. Innumerable branches, hardly lower 
than the main crest, diverge from it in all directions ; of these 
the chain of the Bernese' Alps is the highest and most ex- 
tensive. It separates at the Mount St. Got'hard, in a line 
parallel to the principal chain, forming one of the most re- 
markable groups of mountain scenery in Europe. 

261. An interesting part of the Alpine system is the chain 
of the Swiss Ju'ra, commencing south on the banks of the 
Rh5ne, and running north-east to the junction of the Rhine 
and Aar, a distance of 160 miles, with an average breadth- 
of 30 miles. The Ju'ra consists of several long parallel 
chains, enclosing narrow longitudinal valleys. The slope 
of the Ju'ra is rapid on the Swiss side, but more gentle 
towards France ; and the ridge, as seen from a distance, pre- 
sents a regular undulating line, with rounded, dome-like sum- 
mits. Unlike the Alps, the chain of the Ju'ra is clothed from 
base to summit with luxuriant pine forests. 

262. At the Great Glock'ner the main chain divides into 
two branches — the No'ric and Car'nic Alps; the latter is 
the continuation of the chief stem. At Mont Terglou' it 
takes the name of Julian Alps, and runs east till it joins the 
Balkan' under the 18th meridian. 

263. The Hyrca'nian, Sudet'ic, and Carpa'thian Mountains 
form the northern boundary of these highlands. The first, 
consisting of three parallel ridges, extends from the right 
bank of the Rhine to the centre of Germany, about 51° N. 
lat., on the confines of Bava'ria and Bohe'mia. The Sudet'ic 
Mountains begin on the east of this group, and, after a circuit 
of 300 miles around Bohe'mia, terminate at the small ele- 
vated plain of the Upper O'der, which connects them with 
the Carpa'thian Mountains. The country to the south of 
these limiting chains, between them and the Alps, is covered 

260. Of parallel chains. The Bernese Alps. —261. The Swiss Jura. Slopes 
of the Jura. Forests. — 262. Division of the Alps at the Great Glockner. — 
263. Northern limit of the Central Highlands. The Hyrcanian Mountain^. 
The Sudetic Mountains. The country south of these chains. Width of the 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP EUROPE. 



m 



with an intricate network of mountains and plains of moderate 
elevation. The width of the higher Alps is about 100 miles, 
increasing to 150 miles east of the GrisonS', and to 200 miles 
between the 15th and 16th meridians, but is not more than 
80 miles where it joins the Balkan' Mountains. 

264. The Balkan' range extends 600 miles, from the Jtilian 
Alps to the Black Sea. It begins by a table land 70 miles 
long, traversed by low hills, ending in precipitous rocks 7000 
feet high. Bugged mountains succeed to this, with snow- 
clad summits. Another table land follows, extending to 
Mount Arbe'lus, near the town of Sophia, Where the He'mus 
Mountains begin. These run in parallel ridges, separated by 
valleys, to the Black Sea, dividing the plains between the 
Lower Dan'ube and the Propon'tis into nearly equal parts. 
The Balkan' system of mountains is every where rent by 
terrific fissures across the chains and table lands, so deep 
and narrow that daylight is almost excluded. These chasms 
afford the safest passes across the range. 



§ 3. The Southern Peninsulas of Europe. 

265. The Spanish Peninsula consists chiefly of table 
land traversed by parallel ridges of mountains. The Can- 
tii'brian chain extends from the Pyr'enees westward to Cape 
Finisterre', on the Atlantic. On the Spanish side of the 
Pyr'enees, gigantic sloping offsets, separated by deep valleys, 
extend to the banks of the E'bro. The Ibe'rian range di- 
verges at right angles from the Pyr'enees, and extends south- 
wards nearly through the whole of Spain. From this range 
various collateral branches again diverge, generally taking a 
south-westerly course. Of these the most northerly is the 
nigged and romantic Castil'ian range, which extends into 
Portugal ; then follow the Sier'ra de Toledo, the Sier'ra 
More'na and the Sier'ra Neva'da. The table land is bai-fe 
of trees. The plains of old Castile' are bare and uncul- 
tivated, except along the banks of the rivers. The mari- 
time provinces on the Mediterranean and those of Por- 
tugal are luxuriant and beautiful. Central Spain, embracing 
the two Castiles^ is the most considerable table land of 
Europe, having a general elevation of 2000 feet above the 

higher Alps. — 264. The Balkan range. Table land. The Hemus Mountains. 
Fissures and chasms. — 265. Spanish peninsixla. Cantabrian chain. Spanish 
side of the Pyrenees. Iberian range. South-westerly collateral branches. 
Of the table lands, plains, and maritime parts. Plateau of Central Spain. — 



88 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

sea level. The descent from it is, on all sides, very steep, 
and the transition from the almost treeless plains of Castile' 
to the milder climate and luxuriant vegetation of the low- 
lands, at the foot of the plateau, is very striking. 

266. The Italian Peninsula is traversed by the Xp'en- 
nines, beginning at the Mdr'itime Alj^s, enclosing the Gulf 
of Gen'oa, and running in parallel ridges to the middle of 
Cala'bria. There they separate into two branches, one of 
which goes to Ca'po de Leu'ca, on the Gulf of Ta'ranto, the 
other to Cape Spartiven'to, in the Strait of Messi'na, and 
reappearing in the Island of SFcily. The mountains of Sar- 
din'ia and Cor'sica are outlying members of the Mar'itime 
Alps. 

267. The Grecian Peninsula is a country of mountains. 
The chains terminate in bold, projecting headlands, which 
reach far into tlie sea, and reappear in the numerous islands 
and rocks that dot the coast. The Grecian mountains, like 
the Balkan', are torn by transverse fractures. 



§ 4. Northern Highlands of Europe. 

268. The Scandinavian System of Mountains, from 
which the peninsula takes its name, extends from the south- 
ern point of Norway, along the western coast, for 1000 miles, 
in a north-east direction, terminating at Cape North, on the 
Arctic Ocean. Its highest elevation is 8400 feet. The south- 
ern portion of the chain is called the Hardan'ger-field, and 
consists of ridges following the general direction of the range 
150 miles broad. At a distance of 360 miles from the Naze 
the mountains form a single elevated mass, called the Dov're- 
field, terminating in a table land 4500 feet high. It slopes 
toAvards the east, and plunges at once into a deep sea on the 
west. The northern section of the chain is called the Ki'olen 
Mountains. The coast of Norway is a continued series of 
rocky islands, capes, promontories, and precipitous cliffs, rent 
into fiords or chasms, which penetrate for miles into the heart 
of the mountains. The valleys in Sweden along the eastern 
side of the chain abound in forests and lakes. 

269. The mountains of the British Isles and those of 

266. Italian peninsula. The Apennines. Mountains of Sardinia and Corsica. 

— 267. Grecian peninsula. — 268. iScandinavian mountains. The Hardanger- 
field. The Do^Te-field. The Kiolen Mountains. Coast of Norway. Sweden. 

— 269. Mountains of the British Isles. Scotland in the north-west. Scottish 
mountains. The Grampian Hills. Ben Nevis. Western part of Scotland. 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP EUROPE. 89 

the north-eastern parts of Iceland have a similar character, and 
follow the same general directions as those of Scandina'via, 
and are therefore considered as belonging to the same sys- 
tem. The Fer'oe Islands rise at once in a table land, 2000 
feet high, bounded by precipitous cliffs. The rocky islands 
of Shetland and Ork'ney form part of the Scottish system. 
The north-west part of Scotland is a table land, from 1000 
to 2000 feet high, which ends abruptly in the sea, covered 
with heath, peat mosses, and pasture. The general direction 
of the Scottish mountains is from south-west to north-east, 
divided by a long line of lakes in the same direction, extend- 
ing from near the Isle of Mull completely across the island 
to M6r'ay Firth. The Gram'pian Hills, with their spurs, fill 
the greater part of Scotland north of the Clyde and the Fortli. 
Ben Nev'is, 4368 feet above the level of the sea, is the high- 
est mountain in the British Isles. The western part of Scot- 
land is a wild country. Along the Atlantic coast it bears a 
strong resemblance to that of Norway. It is thought prob- 
able that the Heb'rides Islands once formed a part of the 
main land, since they follow the same direction of the moun- 
tain system in two parallel lines of islands of rugged and 
imposing aspect. The undulating country on the borders of 
Scotland becomes higher in the west of England and north 
of Wales, where the hills are wild, though the valleys are 
in a high state of cultivation. Ireland is mostly a moun- 
tainous country, the Atlantic coast presenting the same 
wild aspect as seen in the neighboring islands ; but it is 
rich in arable land and pasture, and abounds in fresh water 
lakes. 

270. The Ural Chain of Mountains, forming the boundary 
between Europe and Asia, is the only interruption in the 
level of the great northern plain, and is wholly separate 
from any other mountain system. This chain begins on the 
right bank of the U'ral River, in about the 51st parallel of 
north latitude, and runs due north to the Gulf of Ka'ra. It 
consists of three sections — the northern, middle, and south- 
ern U'rals. Their peaks do not generally exceed 5000 feet in 
height. . The breadth of the range varies from 40 to 120 
miles. The descent on both sides is so gentle that in many 
places it is difficult to determine where the plain begins. 

West of England and north of Wales. Ireland. — 270. The Ural Mountains. 



90 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 5. The Great European Plain. 

271. The great European plain occupies more than two 
thirds of the continent, extending from the North Sea east- 
ward along the southern shores of the Bal'tic, as far as the 
U'ral Mountains, and from the shores of the Black Sea on 
the south to those of the Arctic Ocean on the north. Through 
the whole of this tract, which comprehends Holland, North 
Germany, the greater part of Prussia, and the whole of Eu- 
rope'an Rds'sia, there scarcely occurs any elevation deserving 
the name of a hill. 

272. The mean height of the low provinces of France is 
480 feet, Mos'cow, the highest point of the Europe'an plain, 
is also 480 feet, from which the land slopes imperceptibly 
towards the sea, both on the north and the south, till it really 
dips below its level. Holland would be overflowed were it 
not for its dikes. At Astrakan, on the Cas'pian Sea, the plain 
sinks still lower than in Holland. 

273. The Europe'an plain is highly cultivated and very 
productive in the western and middle regions and along the 
Bal'tic. A large portion of the plain is pasture land, and 
wide tracts are covered with forests, especially in Po'land and 
Kiis'sia. The quantity of swamp and waste land in Europe 
is also great. Towards the eastern extremity the plain as- 
sumes the peculiar character of desert called steppes, a level 
waste destitute of trees, commencing at the Paver Dnie'per, 
and extending along the shores of the Black Sea. 



§ 6. River Systems of Europe. 

274. Europe stands preeminent among the continents on 
account of its extensive water surface. Its numerous joenin- 
sulas, and the deep indentations of its coast by the ocean and 
by inland seas, render it the most accessible for commercial 
intercourse. 

275. It comprises two principal water systems, each of 
which may be subdivided into as many natural divisions, or 
basins, as it has primary rivers. In the west, the Alps and 

Their extent. Sections. Descent. — 271. The great Eiiropean plain. Coun- 
tries included. Elevation. — 272. Particular heights. ■— 273. Of cultivated and 
waste lands. Steppes. — 274. The water surface of Europe compared with the 
other continents. Facilities for commerce. — 275. Tavo principal water sy^^tems. 
The dividing line in t^he west. The Avatefshed in the eastern parts. Waters 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE. 91 

the German mountains divide tlie waters that flow into the 
Atlantic from those that flow into the Mediterranean and 
Black Seas. In the eastern parts, a watershed exists on the 
great plain, beginning on the northern declivity of the Car- 
pa'thian Mountains, at about the 23d meridian, in a low range 
of hills. It runs between the sources of the Dnie'per and 
Vfs'tula, and winds along the plain to the Val'dai table land, 
which is the highest point. It then declines northward towards 
Lake One'ga, in about the 60th parallel, and lastly bends 
round to the sources of the Ka'ma in the U'ral Mountains. 
The waters north of this watershed flow into the Bal'tic and 
"White Seas, and those on the south flow into the Black and 
Cas'pian Seas. The streams north of the general watershed 
are very numerous ; those on the south are of greater mag- 
nitude. 

276. The systems of the V6rga and Dan'abe Rivers are 
the most extensive in Europe. The Volga has a basin com- 
prising 653,000 square miles, and is navigable throughout 
most of its course. It rises in a small lake on the slopes of 
the Val'dai table land, at an elevation of 550 feet, and falls 
into the Cas'pian Sea, which is 83 feet below the level of the 
Black Sea ; so that it has a descent of 633 feet in a course 
of 2000 miles. It carries to the Cas'pian one seventh of all 
the river water of Europe. The U'ral River also falls into 
the Cas'pian. 

277. The Danube drains a surface of 312,000 square miles, 
traversing the whole of Southern Germany, Hungary, and 
Turkey. . It receives 60 navigable tributaries, among which 
are the Inn, the Drave, the Save, the Theiss, and the Pruth. 
The quantity of water discharged by the Dan^ibe is nearly 
equal to that of all the other rivers flowing into the Black 
Sea. It rises in the Black Forest, in Germany, at an eleva- 
tion of 2850 feet, giving it a current of considerable velocity, 
which, with rocks and rapids, impedes its navigation in many 
placies. From Orso'va to the Black Sea it flows in a gentle 
current, and is navigable for large vessels. Its length is 1725 
miles. The Dnie'per and Dnies'ter also flow into the Black 
Sea. The Don falls into the Sea of Az'of 

278. The River Po rises on the confines of France, from 
Mount Vi'so in the Alps, and flows eastward to the Adriatic. 
It divides the extensive and rich plain of Lombardy into two 

north of this -watershed. South. Contrast. — 276. The Volga and Danube 
systems. Basin of the Volga. Its source and termination. Descent. Vol- 
ume. The Ural llivcr. — 277. Bisin of the Danube. Chief tributaries. Vol- 
ume o^ water. Source. Length. Dnieper and Dniester. Don. — 278. Describe 



92 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

nearly equal parts, and is the great receptacle for the streams 
flowmg south from the Alps, and for those that flow north 
from a part of the Ap'ennine range. This plain is about 250 
miles long, and from 50 to 120 miles wide, including the 
whole of the Lombar'do-Vene'tian kingdom, the central por- 
tion of Sardinia, most of Piir'nia and Mo'dena, and the 
northern parts of the Pa'pal States. 

279. The Ehone River rises in Switzerland, west of Mount 
St. Got'hard, at an elevation of 5780 feet, and flows, at first, 
westerly to the Lake of GeneVa. On leaving the lake it 
takes a south-west direction, passing between the Alps and 
JQ'ra chain into France, till it receives the waters of the 
Saone coming from the north. From thence it flows south, 
and enters the Gulf of Lyons by four mouths. Its length is 
645 miles. The Cevennes' Mountains form the western 
boundary of the basin of the Khone, and the Alps the east- 
ern. This river passes through one of the most beautiful 
and delightful regions of the world. It is one continued 
vineyard, sheltered by mountains from 500 to 2000 feet height, 
and dotted all over with large towns, villages, cottages, and 
neat villas. 

280. The Rivers of Spain form as important a feature as 
its mountains. The Dod'ro and the Ta'gus, rising in the 
Ibe'rian chain, traverse the two central plains, and flow 
through Portugal into the Atlantic. The Guadia'na, on its ap- 
proach to Portugal, forms the boundary between it and Spain. 
The Guadalquivir' is wholly within Spain, and has on its 
banks the cities of Cdr'dova and Seville', with Ca'diz not far 
from its mouth. It is the only river in Spain of much com- 
mercial importance. The E'bro, from the Ca*ntab'rian Moun- 
tains in the north, flows south-east into the Mediterranean. 

281. The greater part of France is composed of river ba- 
sins, separated by mountains and hills, which expand into 
plains as they approach the coast. Besides the Rhone, here- 
tofore described, there is the Garonne' in the south, and the 
Loire (Lwar) in the centre, both flowing into the Bay of 
Biscay ; the Seine in the north-west, flowing into the English 
Channel ; and the Rhine on the eastern boundary. 

282. The Rhine deserves a more particular description. 
It is formed in the Grisons' by the union of three streams ; 

the Po. Extent of the plain of Lombardy. — 279. The Rhone. Eastern and west- 
ern boundary of its basin. Of the regions watered by this river. — 280. Rivers 
of Spain. The Guadalquivir. The Ebro. — 281. River basiiis of France. Chief 
rivers. — 282. Sources of the Rhine. From Lake Constance to the Rheinfells. 
Division between the Upper and Lower Rhine. Its course, &c., from Basle. 
Tributaries above and below Basle. Extent of the basin of the Rhine. Com- 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP EUROPE. 93 

the first of which issues from the north side of Mount St. 
Got'hard, at an elevation of 6580 feet ; and flowing north, re- 
ceiving many torrents and streams in its descent, it enters 
Lake Constance. Leaving the lake at the west end, it flows 
westward to Schafl'hati'sen, and 3 miles below it falls over a 
ledge of rocks 80 feet in height, forming the celebrated cata- 
ract of the Rheln^ells. The river keeps its western cours% 
through a rocky valley as far as Basle, which is 827 feet 
above the level of the North Sea, and is the point of division 
between the Upper and Lower Rhine. Here, turning north, 
its navigation commences ; and leaving Switzerland, it forms 
the boundary between France and Ba'den, flowing on north 
and north-west through Germany and Holland, till it falls into 
the North Sea. Its length is 600 miles. The chief tributa- 
ries of the Rhine are the Aar above Basle, and the Neck'ar, 
Mayne, Moselle', and Meuse, below. The basin drained by 
the Rhine and its affluents comprises more than 65,280 square 
miles. In a commercial point of view the Rhine is, perhaps, 
the most important river in Europe, owing to the numerous 
states to which it aflbrds a water conveyance. The whole 
of Holland is a collection of deltoid islands, formed by the 
Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheldt. 

283. The great plain which forms the north of Germany, 
Priis'sia, and Po'land is traversed by several large rivers and 
their tributaries. The We'ser rises on the northern slope of 
the Rhon'gebir'ge, and flowing north for 250 miles, falls into 
the North Sea. The Elbe, a large and important river, flows 
from the Bohe'mian Mountains, generally in a north-west 
course, for 550 miles, and also falls into the North Sea. The 
O'der rises in Mora'via, from the Sudet'ic and Carpa'thian 
Mountains, at an elevation of 1800 feet, and flows north- 
west through the centre of Prris'sia to the BaFtic Sea. The 
Vis'tula rises in MoraVia, in a branch of the Carpa'thians, 
near the frontier of Gali'cia, and flows northerly through the 
centre of Po'land into the Gulf of Dant'zic, an arm of the 
Bal'tic Sea. Its length is 530 miles. 

284. The principal rivers which drain the western and 
northern parts of Rtis'sia are the Nie'men, which flows into 
the Bal'tic; the Dd'na, into the Gulf of Ri'ga; the One'ga, 
Dvvi'na, and Mezene', into the White Sea; and the Petscho'ra, 
into the Ai-ctic Ocean. 

285. Throughout the lowlands of Europe the navigable 

mercial importance of the Rhine. Holland. — 283. Of Northern Germany, 
Prussia, and Poland. Describe the Weser. The Elbe. The Oder. The Vis- 
tula. — 284. Rivers of the west and north of Russia. — 285. Of canals. Rivera 



M ELeMsIS of PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

streams are connected by numerous canals, which greatly 
facilitate the inland navigation. The river systems of the 
British Isles, in connection with their canals, afford facilities 
for transportation not exceeded by those of any other country. 
The surface of England is traversed by a network of water- 
courses equal in extent to 5430 miles. 



§ 7. Lakes of Europe. 

286. The lakes of Europe may be grouped into two sys- 
tems — those of the great northern plain, and those of the 
mountain mass. The chief of those in the lowlands are the 
Lake Lado'ga and Lake One'ga, of Rtis'sia, and Lake Wen'ner 
and Lake Wet'ter of Sweden. A large part of Finland is 
covered with lakes. 

287. The mountain system of lakes comprehends those 
of the Pyr'enees, the Alps, and the Ap'ennines. The lakes 
of the Pyr'enees are chiefly on the French side. There is 
scarcely a valley in the Alpine range without its sheet of 
water. The most elevated is that of Lake Toiib, 7200 feet 
above the level of the sea. 

288. There are more lakes on the north than on the south 
side of the Alps : the German valleys are full of them. The 
Lake of Gene'va, from its situation, the pure azure of its 
waters, and the sublime mountain scenery, is the largest and 
most beautiful of all the Alpine lakes. Its surface contains 
about 240 square miles ; it is 1230 feet above the level of the 
sea, and in one place is 1012 feet deep. There are also the 
lakes Lucerne', Brienz', Con'stance, and the Italian lakes 
Co'mo, Maggio're, Luga'no, and Gar'da. These lakes are fed 
by rivers rising in the gla'ciers of the higher Alps, and many 
large rivers flow from them. 



§ 7. Geology of Europe. 

289. Among the chief primary rocks of the great table 
land of Europe are granite, gneiss, and sienite. In the Al- 
pine ranges west of St. Gothard, calcareous rocks abound, 
often intermixed with clay slate and mica slate ; east of St. 

of the British Isles. — 286. Two systems of lakes in Europe. Chief of the 
lowland lakes. — 287. Mountain lakes. Lakes of the Pyrenees. Alpine lakes. 
— 288. Lakes north of the Alps. Lake of Geneva. Other important lakes. 
Their sources. — 289. Geology of Europe. 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP EUROPE. 9S 

GTothard the central chain is accompanied by lofty calcareous 
ranges, full of caverns. Granite is abundant in most Euro- 
pean countries where primary formations are met with ; 
gneiss is the rock in which the Saxon, Bohemian, and Aus- 
tralian metallic veins are situated. Transition limestone, 
which furnishes some of the best ornamental marbles, occurs 
in the north and west of England, south of France, the Alps 
and Pyrenees ; graywacke, in which numerous metallic ores 
reside, abounds in Germany, Transylvania, the north of Italy, 
* &c. Coal exists extensively in the British Islands, Sweden, 
France, Germany, Bohemia, &c. ; chalk is a formation almost 
peculiar to Europe, extending throughout the greater part of 
England, the north of France, and parts of Poland, Russia, 
Sweden, and Spain. Tertiary beds, containing a great num- 
ber of fossils, exist in various parts of Europe ; the most 
noted are those of the London and Paris basins. Mineral 
springs in great variety abound in Europe. 



Table of Minerals of Europe. 

Diamonds. — Russia. 

Other Precious Stones. — Bohemia, Hungary, Transylvania, and Saxony. 

Gold. — Russia, Austria, Hungary, and Sardinia. 

Silver. — Austria, Hungary, Saxony, Hanover, Turkey, Greece, Prussia, Eng- 
land, France, Sweden, Norway, and Sardinia. 

Tin. — England, Saxony, and Bohemia. 

Mercury. — Spain, Austria, Bavaria. 

Copper. — Great Britain and Ireland, Russia, Austria, Sweden, Norway. Tur- 
key, Greece, Prussia, Spain, France, and Hanover. 

Iron. — Europe, (every where.) 

Lead. — Spain, Great Britain and Ireland, Austria, Prussia, Hanover, France, 
Saxony, and Sardinia. 

Zinc. — England, Belgium, Prussia, and Austria. 

Coal. — Great Britain and Ireland, Belgium, France, Prussia, and Austria. 

Salt. — Russia, Austria, France, Spain, Great Britain and Ireland, Portugal, 
Prussia, Turkey, Sardinia, Bavaria, Italy, Norway, Sweden, and 
Greece. 



90 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 9. Questions for Review. 

290. What is there remarkable in the contour' of Europe ? 

What is the principal feature in the reliefs ? 

What proportion of the surface of Europe is water ? 

Into how many and Avhat principal divisions may the surface be divided ? 

What three groups or ranges compose the Central Highlands ? 

Which is the western range ? Its average height ? 

What mountains in France ? 

"What is the extent of the Alps Moimtains ? 

What are the situation and height of Mont Blanc ? Course of the 
Alps from Mont Blanc to the Great Glock'ner ? 

Where is the greatest Europe'an gla'cier found ? 

By what is the central ridge of the liigher Alps characterized ? 

At what point do the Bernese' Alps diverge from the main crest ? 

Describe the Ju'ra Mountains. 

What two branches diverge from the Great Glock'ner ? 

What mountains form the northern boundary of the Central Highlands ? 

Where is the Balkan' range ? 

What is their character ? 

Of what does the Spanish peninsula consist ? 

Name the principal ridges that traverse the peninsula. 

What mountains traverse the ItaHan peninsula ? 

What islands are considered as outlying portions of the Mar'itime Alps ? 

What is the character of the Grecian peninsula ? 

Describe the Scandina'vian Mountains. 

What characterizes the Norwe'gian coast ? 

What other mountains are considered as belonging to the Scandina'mn 
system ? 

Which is the highest summit of the British Isles ? 

What chain running north and south sejiarates Asia from Europe ? 

What chain running east and west ? 

How much of the continent is comprised in the great European plain ? 

What countries are included in this tract ? 

What is the elevation of this plain above the sea ? 

Where are the steppes, or desert parts ? 

How many chief water systems in Europe ? 

What forms the watershed between them ? 

Describe the basin oY the Vol'ga. 

Describe the basin of the Dan'ube. The valley of the Po. The valley 
of the Rhone. 

Describe the river system of Spain. 

What rivers in France besides the Rhone ? 

Give a description of the Rhine and its affluents. 

By what rivers is the great plain of Europe traversed ? 

Chief rivers of Western and Northern Russia ? 

Extent of the water courses of England ? 

Which are the principal lowland lakes of Europe ? 

On which side of the crest of the Alps and Pyr'enees are lakes most 
numerous ? 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP EUROPE. 97 

Which is the most elevated of the Alpine kkes ? 

Describe Lake Gene/va. 

In what country are Lakes Lucerne', Brienz, and Con'stance ? 

Where are lakes Co'mo, Maggio're, Luga'no, and Gar'da ? 

On what sea is the lowland of Germany ? 

What two peninsulas are connected with the Alps ? 

What volcanoes in Italy and its islands ? 

What mountainous peninsula in Northern Europe ? 

Are its mountains single or in ranges ? 

What large river rises in the Central Highlands and flows towards the 
east? 

What two others in the Alps flowing north-west and south-west ? 

Which river flows from the southern decli^dty of the Alps ? 

In what ridge of land do most of the rivers of the north-eastern low- 
lands rise ? 

Into what seas do they flow ? 

Where are the Meuse' and Scheldt ? 

Where do the east and west branches of the Volga respectively rise ? 

What river of Asia flows from the U'ral Mountains ? 

9 



CHAPTER IX. 

SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. 
Preparatory Exercises on the Map of Asia. 

291. How is Asia bounded ? 

"What branches of the Arctic Ocean indent the north of Asia ? 

What branches of the Pacific in the east ? 

What islands skirt the Pacific coast ? 

What chain of islands extends from Kamtchat'ka to Alias'ka ? 

"What branches has the Chi'na Sea ? 

What branches of the In'dian Ocean indent the south ? 

Mention the branches of the Ara'bian Sea. 

What is the entrance of the Red Sea ? 

How is Ceylon' separated from the main land ? 

How is Suma'tra separated from the main land ? 

What strait between Suma'tra and Ja'va ? 

How are Borne 'o and Cel'ebes separated ? 

What passage between Formo'sa and the main land ? 

What between j;he Japan' Isles and Core'a ? 

What between the Sagha'lien Island and Mantchod'ria ? 

Name the chief islands between Asia and Austra'lia. 

Where is the Island of Cy'prus ? 

Name the chief islands north of Asia. 

What groups of islands in the Bay of Bengal' ? 

What groups west and south-west of Hindostan' ? 

What three great peninsulas in the south of Asia ? 

What is the southern cape of Hindostan' ? 

What three capes of In'do-Chi'na ? 

What is the eastern cape of AraTaia ? 

What peninsulas on the eastern coast of Asia ? 

What is their general direction from the coast ? 

How is Kamtchat'lca bounded ? 

How is Core'a bounded ? 

What is the southern point of Kamtchat'ka ? 

What cape terminates Asia at Behr'ing's Straits ? 

Which is the most northern cape of Asia ? 

Which is the most southern cape ? 

How is Malay 'a connected with the main land? 

What is the southern point of Ceylon' ? 

Between what parallels is Asia ? 

(98) 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP ASIA. 

Through what zones does it extend P 

What country in Northern Asia ? 

What countries in Central Asia ? 

What three countries south of Toorldstan' ? 

Which is the most western country of Asia ? 

What are the divisions of the Chinese' empire ? 

What are the divisions of In'do-Chi'na ? 

What island empire east of Asia ? 

What is the direction of the coast line of Hindostan' ? 

How are these coasts distinguished ? 



§ 1. Extent and General Features of Asia. 

292. The continent of Asia was the earliest inhabited by- 
man ; it is the largest, and in many respects the most inter- 
esting portion of the earth. The Arctic Ocean is on its north- 
ern border. On the north-east it approaches the American 
continent, from which it is separated by Behr'ing's Straits ; 
On the east it is washed by the Pacific Ocean ; south by the 
Indian Ocean ; and on the west it is limited by Europe and 
Africa. It is separated from Africa by the Gulf of A'den, 
Strait of Babelman'deb, and the Red Sea, and is united to 
it by the Isthmus of Su'ez. It is separated from Europe by 
the Mediterranean, the ArghipeFago, the Dardanelles^ the 
Mar'mora, the Bos'porus, the Black Sea, the crest of the 
Cauca'sian Mountains, the Cas'pian Sea, the U'raf River, 
and the U'ral chain of mountains to the Sea of Ka'ra. It 
lies between the parallels of 1° and 78° N. lat., and between 
the meridians of 26° E. and 168° W. Ion. Its superficial 
area is estimated at 17,500,000 square miles, and its line of 
coast is 35,000 miles, or 500 square miles of surface to one 
mile of coast. 

293. The body of Asia comprises the national divisions of 
Sibe'ria, Toorkistan', Chinese' Tartary, Chi'na, Tibet', Af- 
ghanistan', Beloochistan', and Per'sia. On the south are the 
peninsulas of Ara'bia, Hindostan', and In'do-Chrna; on the 
east Kamtchat'ka and Core 'a ; and on the west Asiatic Tur- 
key. Asia is penetrated on its southern and eastern margins 
by several branches of the ocean. In the south are the Ara- 

292. Asia. Asia compared with other continents. Boundaries. Waters 
between Asia and Africa. Isthmus uniting them. How separated from 
Europe ? Extent. Area. Coast line. — 293. National dinsions. Seas, gulfs, 



100 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

bian Sea, Gulf of Oman', Per'sian Gulf, Bay of Bengal', Gulf 
of Siam', Chi'na Sea, and Gulf of Tonkin' ; and in the east 
are the Yellow Sea, Japan' Sea, and Okhotsk' Sea. The 
surface of the continent presents a vast pile of highlands and 
plateaus, occupying the entire centre, with extensive broad 
and low plains on the north, and lowlands of less extent on 
the east and south. 



§ 2. Mountain Systems of Asia. 

294. The Asiatic portion of the great mountain zone of the 
old world comprises several important ranges. Tracing the 
highlands from the western limit of Asiatic Turkey, where 
the Balkan' system in Europe is interrupted by the Darda- 
nelles' and the Sea of Mar'mora, we find successively, in one 
general direction eastward, the Tau'rus Mountains in Turkey, 
the Elboorz' Mountains in Persia, and the Paropami'san and 
Hin'doo-Koosh Mountains in Afghanistan', which extend as 
far as the Vale of Cashmere'. Here begins the Himalay'a 
chain, taking a direction east-south-east to the 94th meridian, 
where the Brahmapoo'tra Kiver intersects it ; thence it bends 
east, running across Chi'na, to terminate in the Island of 
Formo'sa. 

295. North of these ranges are the Altai' Mountains, com- 
mencing on the right bank of the Ir'tysh River, in about the 
48th parallel of north latitude. They at first divide into three 
chains, forming a knot in the region of Lake Bai'kal, where 
its highest points rise to 10,000 feet. The principal chain 
continues on, in an irregular line, east-north-east, under the 
names of Yablon'noi and Stan'novoi Mountains, to East Cape, 
at Behr'ing's Straits. The Altai' chain is a succession of 
terraces descending from the great central plateau, and end- 
ing in promontories on the Siberian plains. 

296. The mean height of the Himalay'a range is not less 
than 16,000 feet. In this system are found the loftiest sum- 
mits in the world. The peak of Kunchingin'ga, on the 
north-west of Bootan', is 28,178 feet high — the highest yet 
ascertained. The Dhawalaghi'ri, situated on the border of 
Nepaul', about 400 miles west of the former, is 28,080 feet 

and bays on. the south. East. Reliefs of the continent. — 294. The great 
mountain zone from the west of Asia Minor to the Vale of Cashmere. The 
Himalaya range. — 295. The Altai Mountains. Descent of the Altai chain 
from the central plateau. — 296. Mean height of the Himalaya range. Mount 
Kunchinginga. Dhawalaghiri. Region of the loftiest peaks of the Himalaya. - 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP ASIA. 



101 



1 o ^ 






high. All the highest peaks of this range are between the 
gorges of the Indus and Brahmapoo'tra Rivers. 

297. In the course of 
the Himalay'a two re- 
markable knots occur. 
The western knot is north 
of Hindostan', where the 
Hin'doo Koosh meets 
the Himalay'a, with the 
Beloor' chain branching 
off towards the north, 
and the Soly maun' chain 
towards the south. The 
eastern knot is east of 
Bootan', where the Brah- 
mapoo'tra cuts through 
the range. It is formed 
by a chain setting off 
towards the north-east, 
through Chinese Tar- 
tary, and five chains 
towards the south, ex- 
tending in a divergent 
direction through the 
Peninsula of In'do-Chi'- 
na, leaving large and fer- 
tile kingdoms between 
them. One of these, 
the West Siamese' ridge, 
is the longest, reaching 
to Cape Roma'nia, at 
the southern extremity 
of Malay 'a, and trace- 
able through the Island 
of Suma'tra. 

298. The Kuen'-liin 
Mountains, north of the 
Himalay'a, seem to be 
a continuation of the 
Hin'doo Koosh, pursu- 
ing an easterly direc- 
tion. The Thi'an-Shan' 



aq 




297. Remarkable knots in this chain. Situation of the first knot. Situation 
of the second knot. The West Siamese ridge. — 298. Of the Kuen-lun Moun- 
9# 



102 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Mountains, north of the Kuen'-liin, extend east from the 
northern extremity of the Beloor' chain, along the 42d paral- 
lel of north latitude. 

299. In Hindostan' the Western Ghauts border the Mala- 
bar' coast, at an elevation of 3000 feet, while the Eastern 
Ghauts run along the Coroman'del coast, forming a gradual 
descent from the table lands to the lowlands. 

300. The Peninsula of Kamtchat'ka is formed by a spur 
of the Altai' chain. It has a double row of active volcanoes 
on the eastern coast, some as high as 14,O0iO feet. Numei'ous 
islands extend from Kamtchat'ka along the coast of Asia to 
the Malay' Peninsula, forming a volcanic band. They are 
generally long and narrow, and comprise the Koo'rile Islands, 
Japan' Isles, Loo-Choo' Islands, Formo'sa, Philip'pine Islands, 
the Moluc'cas, and Borne'o. 

301. The lofty range of the Cauca'sian Mountains, which 
extends for 700 miles between the Black and Cas'pian Seas, 
is an outlying member of the Asiatic highlands, and, like the 
U'ral, belongs in common to both Asia and Europe. 



§ 3. Plateaus of Asia. 

302. The table lands of Asia may be divided into two great 
portions — the Oriental plateau, or table land of Tibet', and 
the plateau of Iran, or table land of Persia. 

303. The Oriental plateau is bounded on the south by the 
Himalay'a Mountains, which separate it from the luxuriant 
plains of Hindostan' ; on the north by the Altai' Mountains, 
which separate it from the plains of Sibe'ria ; on the west 
by the Beloor' Mountains, which separate it from Toorkistan'; 
on the north-east by the Khingan' Mountains, which separate 
it from Mantchou'ria ; and on the south-east by mountain 
lands, which cover a great portion of Chi'na. This plateau 
has an area of 7,600,000 square miles, and a mean height of 
14,000 feet. It is traversed from west to east by the Kuen'- 
lun and Thi'an-Shan' ranges. 

304. The mountain valley of Tibet' is enclosed between 
the Himalay'a chain on the south and the Kuen'-ldn on the 
north ; Tungoot', or Chinese' Tartary, lies between the Kuen'- 

tains. The Thian-Shan Mountains. — 299. The Western Ghauts. Eastern 
Ghauts. — 300. Peninsula of Kamtchatka. Islands along the eastern coast of 
Asia. — 301. The Caucasian Mountains. — 302. Division of the table lands of 
Asia. — 303. Limits of the Oriental plateau. Extent of its area. Mean height. 
Mountain ranges. — 304. Tibet. Tungoot. Mongolia. Breadth of this pla- 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. 103 

Wn and the Thi'an-Shrm, and Mongolia between the Thi^an- 
Shan and the Altai' ranges. The breadth of the plateau on 
the west is from 700 to 1000 miles; on the east it is 2000 
miles. In Little Tibet' it attains an elevation of 12,000 feet, 
descending to 4000 towards its northern border. 

305. The country of Tibet', between the Himalay'a and 
Kuen'-liin, consists of rocky, mountainous ridges, extending 
from north-west to south-east, separated by long valleys, in 
which flow the upper portions of the In'dus, Sut/ledge, and: 
Brahmapoo'tra. The table lands of Chhiese' Tartary, which 
lie beyond the Kuen'-Mn Mountains, are less elevated and 
more fertile than Tibet'. Of Mongo'lia, between- the Thi'an- 
Shan' and the Altai', little is known. Its grassy steppes are 
pasture grounds for the wandering Kir'ghis of Tartary. 

306. The remarkable feature of the Oriental plateau is the 
Desert of Co'bi, or Sha'mo, which occupies 300,000 square 
miles in the eastern portion. The summer sun is scorching, 
and no rain falls ; but in winter it is intensely cold, because 
the hills to the north arc too low to screen thera from the 
polar winds. 

307. The plateau of Iran' is oblong, extending from the 
shores of Asia Minor to the Hin'doo-Koosh' and the Soly- 
maun' Mountains. It covers an area of 1,700,000 square 
miles, generally about 4000 feet above the sea, and in some 
places 7000 feet. Anato'lia, the most western part of this 
plateau, 3000 feet elevation, is traversed by short chains and 
broken groups of mountains, separated by fertile valleys. 
The Tau'rus Mountains form the southern border. The 
table land becomes more elevated eastward, in Arme'nia and 
Koordistan'. Mount Ar'arat is here, 17,212 feet high, with 
its summit shrouded in perpetual snow. The plateau of 
Iran' is bounded for 1000 miles, along the Persian Gulf and 
Sea of Arabia, by a mountainous belt, as far as the mouth 
of the In'dus, descending in terraces from the table land to 
the narrow shores of the gulf 

308. Excepting the provinces bordering on the Caspian 
Sea and in the Paropami'san range, Persia is a desert 
country. A great salt desert occupies 27,000 square miles 
in the province of Khorassan', and south of it is the large 
sandy desert of Kirman'. The greater part of Beloochistan' 
is a lifeless plain, over which the red sand is drifted by the 

teau. Elevation in Tibet. — 30-5. The countiy of Tibet. Table lands beyond 
the Kuen-lun Mountains. Of Mongolia. — 306. Desert of Gobi. — 307. The 
plateau of Iran. Of Anatolia. Mount Ararat. Boundary of this plateau along 
the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. — 308. Persia a desert. Beloochistan, 



104 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

north wind into ridges often 12 feet high. In Afghanistan' 
there is little cultivation, except on the banks of rivers; 
but towards the north-east the plains and valleys among the 
offsets of the Hin'doo-Koosh' are of surprising loveliness and 
beauty. 



§ 4. Declivities and Plains op Asia. 

309. All the country north and east of the Cas'pian Sea, 
and between the TJ'ral and Altai' mountains, presents a dead 
level of tiiin but luxuriant pasture, called the Kir'ghis steppes. 
Immense herds of cattle, horses, and camels roam over them 
while covered with verdure, but in winter they become track- 
less fields of snoAV. 

310. Sibe'ria is either a dead level, or an undulating sur- 
face of more than 7,000,000 square miles, commencing at the 
base of the Altai' Mountains and descending towards the 
Arctic Ocean. It is chiefly composed of vast steppes, some 
fertile, some desert, and others marshy, and is traversed by 
numerous rivers, many of whose valleys are fertile. Some 
of the southern regions produce grain and grass. The low- 
lands, lying south of the great mountain zone, are much 
broken by its offsets, by separate groups of mountains, and 
by deep indentations of bays and large seas. The country 
of Mantchou'ria, lying immediately south of the Yablon'noi 
Mountains, is similar in aspect to Sibe'ria. It is partly in- 
tersected by mountains and covered by dense forests. To- 
wards Core'a the country is more fertile. 

311. Chi'na is the most productive country on the face of 
the earth. Its eastern part is an alluvial plain of 200,000 
square miles. The greater part of the plain is occupied by 
rice and garden grounds. The tea plant grows on a low 
range of hills between the 30th and 32d parallels of latitude. 

312. The In'do- Chinese' Peninsula has an area of 77,700 
square miles, and projects 1500 miles into the ocean. Ex- 
tensive plains lie between the offsets descending from the 
east end of the Himalay'a. Magnificent rivers intersect these 
plains, whose soil they have brought down from the table 
land of Tibet'. 

313. The plains of Hindostan' extend 2000 miles, along the 

Afghanistan. — 309. Country north and east of the Caspian Sea. Summer and 
winter. — 310. Of Siberia. Chiefly what ? Lowlands south of the mountain 
zone. Mantchouria. — 311. China. The tea plant. — 312. The Peninsula of 
Indo-Cluna. — 313. Plains of Hindostau. Valley of the Ganges. — 314. The 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. 105 

southern slopes of the Himalay'a, between the Brahmapoo'tra 
and the In'dus, and terminate on the south in the Bay of 
Bengal', the table land of the Dec'can, and the Ara'bian Sea. 
The valley of the Gan'ges is one of the richest on the globe, 
and is under a high state of cultivation. The ascent of the 
plain of the Gan'ges from the Bay of Bengal' is so gradual, 
that Serampore', nearly at the foot of the Himalay'a, is only 
1100 feet higher than Calciit'ta. 

314. The Peninsula of Hindostan' is occupied by the tri- 
angular-shaped table land of the Dec'can, which is much 
lower, and wholly separate from the plateau of Tibet'. It 
has the ranges of the Ghauts on the west and east, and the 
Vind'hya and Sautpoo'ra ridges on the north. Its surface, 
which has an elevation of 3000 to 4000 feet, is a combina- 
tion of plains, ridges of rocks, and insulated flat-topped hills. 
The peninsula terminates with the table land of Mysore', 
7000 feet above the sea, surrounded by the Blue Mountains, 
which rise 3000 feet higher. The western or Malabar' coast 
is rocky, but in many parts well cultivated, and its mountains 
covered with forests. On the eastern or Coraman'del coast, 
the mountains are bare and lower, and the wide plains are 
generally parched. The Island of Ceylon' is almost joined 
to the main land by sand banks and small islands, between 
which the water is at times quite shallow. It has a rich and 
fertile soil, lofty mountains, numerous streams, and native 
forests. 

315. Another range of table lands extends from the south- 
ern border of Koordistan', through Syria, gradually spread- 
ing as it proceeds south, until it fills the Peninsula of Ara'bia. 
The northern part is the Syrian plateau, and the southern is 
the Arabian plateau. The plateau of Syria descends gradu- 
ally towards the Syrian desert on the east. It is crossed by 
mountains, and is divided by a remarkable chasm which ex- 
tends from the Tau'rus Mountains to the Gulf of Ak'aba, the 
eastern arm of the K,ed Sea. The northern part of this 
chasm, or valley, contains the River Jor'dan, Lake of Tibe'- 
rias, and Dead Sea. At the Lake of Tibe'rias it is 329 feet 
below the Mediterranean, and at the Dead Sea the depres- 
sion is 1312 feet. The southern portion of the Syrian plateau 
contains the mountain land of Palestine, with the lowland 
coast of Philis'tia. It is divided into Gal'ilec in the north, 
Sama'ria in the centre, and Judea in the south. Between 

Deccan. Its limits. Surface. Mysore. Malabar coast. Corotnandel coast. 
Ceylon. — 315. Plateaus of Syria and Arabia. Describe the plateau of Syria. 
Remarkable chasm. Lake of Tiberias and Dead Sea. Palestine. Its di\is- 



106 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

the Gulfs of Ak'aba and Sil'ez the mountain group of Si'nai 
is situated. 

316. The Arabian plateau is separated from the Syrian 
by the Ramle'ah Mountains. The interior appears to be a 
genuine table land traversed by mountains, but forming one 
great desert, without trees or rivers, or scarcely any vegeta- 
tion. The south-west portion is called Arabia Felix, or " The 
Happy," on account of its fertility. The narrow lowlands 
which border the table lands of Arabia and Persia are in- 
tensely hot. 



§ 5. River Systems of Asia. 

317. Asia contains many large river systems. The only 
one of importance in Western Asia is that of the Euphra'tes 
and Tl'gris. Its basin comprises an area of 230,000 square 
miles. The Euphra'tes rises in two sources, one in the in- 
terior of Arme'nia not far from Mount Ar'arat, the other in 
the mountains of Erzroom', on the table land. The whole 
river then descends in rapids through the Tau'rus Mountains 
south-easterly across the plains of Mesopota'mia. The Ti- 
gris has its principal source in the mountains of Arme'nia, 
and west of Lake Van.* Its first course is rapid, but in the 
plains its current is slow. Near to the city of Bag'dad, the 
Ti'gris and Euphra'tes approach to within 12 miles of each 
other, and from this point they run nearly parallel for more 
than 100 miles. They unite above Basso'rah, and form one 
stream, which flows into the Persian Gulf. In the plains of 
Mesopota'mia are the sites of the ancient cities of Nin'eveh 
and Bab'ylon. 

318. From the southern side of the Oriental plateau and 
its mountain barriers, a great system of rivers descends, com- 
prising six rivers of the first magnitude, besides many others, 
and conveying to the ocean a greater volume of water than 
all the remaining rivers of the continent. They are the 
Indus, the Gan'ges, the Brahmapoo'tra, the Irrawa'dy, the 
Menam', and the Cambo'dia. 

319. The Indus River has its origin on the northern 
declivity of the Himalay'a, not far from Lake Man'sarowar', 
and taking a W. N. W. course, runs through the valley 

ions. Sinai. — 316. Arabian plateau. Arabia Felix. — 317. Chief river system 
in Western Asia. Describe the Euphrates. The Tigris. Union of the Eu- 
phrates and Tigris. Sites of ancient cities. — 318. Pdver systems south of the 
Oriental plateau. Names of the six largest rivers. — 319. Describe the Indus. 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP ASIA. 107 

of little Tibet', and, intersecting the great Himalay'a chain in 
about 35° K lat, and 74° E. Ion., west of the Valley of Cash- 
mere', it descends south-west to the plains of the Punjab'. 
The Stlt'ledge, the chief tributary of the Indus from the east, 
springs from the sacred lakes in the Valley of Tibet', and 
flows westward along the valley. At about 75° E. Ion. it 
also breaks through the Himalay'a Mountains, descends 
south-west to the plains of the Punjab', and, after receiving 
several large streams, it joins the Indus above Mitttin'. The 
Plains of the Punjab', so called from being watered by " the 
five rivers," is one of the most valuable countries in the East. 
From Mittun' the Indus flows on southerly, and empties into 
the Sea of Arabia by several mouths. Its length is 1650 
miles, and it drains an area of 400,000 square miles. 

320. The Gan'ges and Brahmapoo'tra form a double sys- 
tem. They rise on opposite sides of the Himalay'a, not far 
from each other, but each has its own basin, and flows through 
the greater part of its course independent of the other. 

321. The Gan'ges flows at once in a very rapid stream, 120 
feet wide, from a perpendicular wall of ice, about 200 miles 
N. K W. of Del'hi, and at an elevation of 13,800 feet above 
the sea. Many streams from the southern slope of the Him- 
alay'a unite at Hurdwar' to form the great body of the 
Gan'ges. It flows on in a south-easterly course through the 
plains of Bengal', receiving on its way 20 tributaries of con- 
siderable size. About 220 miles from the Bay of Bengal', 
into which the Gan'ges flows, it divides into many channels 
and branches, forming an intricate maze over a large delta. 

322. The Brahmapoo'tra rises near the sources of the Sdt'- 
ledge and In'dus, in about 30° K lat, and 82° E. Ion. It 
flows easterly under the name of Sanpoo', through the great 
valley of Eastern Tibet', till it reaches the 90th meridian, 
where it makes a sudden bend to the south, cutting through 
the Himalay'a chain, and enters Upper Assam'. Here it is 
first called the Brahmapoo'tra, the " Oflspring of Brah'ma;" and 
taking a south-westerly course, it enters the plains of Bengal', 
where branches of it unite with those of the Gan'ges, about 
40 miles from the coast. The two rivers enter the Bay of 
Bengal' by different channels. The length of the Brahma- 
poo'tra is estimated at 1500 miles. The basins of these two 
great rivers contain an area of 650,000 square miles. 

323. The river system of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula 

Describe the Sutledge. Plains of the Punjab. The Indus below Mittun. — 
320. The Ganges and Brahmapootra. — 321. Source of the Ganges. Union of 
streams at Hurdwar. Course. Division 220 miles from the Bay of Bengal. — 
322. Brahmapootra from its source to the gorge in the Himalaya Mountains. 



108 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

comprises several large rivers flowing through the great val- 
leys that extend from the north to the south, with singular 
uniformity, between the chains of mountains which are no 
less uniform, and spreading out like a fan as they approach 
the sea. The three largest rivers are the Irrawa'dy, which 
waters the Bir'man empire, and falls into the Bay of Bengal' ; 
the Menam', or River of Siam' ; and the Cambo'dia, in the 
east of Annam' ; the last two falling into the Gulf of Siam' 
and the Chi'na Sea. All the rivers of this part of Asia are 
subject to periodical inundations, which fertilize the plains at 
the expense of the mountains. 

324. Four great river systems take their origin on the 
Eastern Declivity of the great central plateau of Asia, 
and, running from west to east, traverse the Chinese empire. 
The Hoang-Kiang' rises in the province of Yunnan', and 
flows east through the plains of Canton' into the Bay of Can- 
ton'. The Yang'-tse-kiang', or " Son of the Ocean," and the 
Hoang'-ho, or '^Yellow River," are of the first magnitude. 
Though near in their sources and in their termination-, each 
is compelled to describe an immense circuit, with an inter- 
val of more than a thousand miles — the Yang'-tse-kiang' 
towards the south, nearing the tropical regions — the Hoang'- 
ho towards the north. They then bend, the one south-east, 
and the other north-east, approaching each other, and enter 
the Yel'low Sea not more than 100 miles apart. They are 
united in the lower part of their course by many canals, thus 
forming one of the grandest systems of internal navigation 
and irrigation in the world. The Amoor' or " Great River," 
rises in Sibe'ria, near Lake Bai'kal, and flows in an irregular 
course eastward, through the Mantchou'rian territory, into the 
channel of Tartary, opposite the Island of Sagha'lien. It is 
2000 miles long, and has a basin of 853,000 square miles. 

325. The Northern Declivity of Asia is characterized by 
three great river systems — the Le'na, the Yenise'i, and the 
double system of the O'bi and Ir'tysh. The Le'na flows 
from the mountains north of Lake Bai'kal, and runs north- 
east through more than half its course to the town of Ya- 
kootsk' in 66° N. lat., {the coldest toivn on the face of the earth;) 
thence north to the Ai'ctic Ocean. Its length is 1900 miles, 
and its basin is 800,000 square miles. The Yenise'i is much 
larger than the Lena, with a basin of about 1,000,000 square 
miles. It is formed by several streams which flow from the 

Name. Course. Junction with the Ganges. Their basins. — 323. River sys- 
tem of Indo-China. Three largest rivers. Remark on the rivers in this part 
of Asia. — 324. River systems of Eastern Asia. The Hoang-Kiang. Yang- 
tse-Kiang, and Hoang-Ho. Amoor. — 325. River systems of Northern Asia. 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. 



109 



higlilands west of Bai'kal, and, taking a northern direction, 
empties into the Arctic Ocean, after a course of 2500 miles. 
The O'bi is formed by the rivers which flow from the northern 
declivity of the Little Altai' Momitains ; and the Ir'tysh by 
those from the south-western side. The O'bi is 2000 miles 
long ; and the basin of these two streams occupies a third 
part of Sibe'ria. All the Sibe'rian rivers are frozen annually 
for many months, and the ocean along the coasts is rarely 
free from ice. 

§ 6. Lakes of Asia. 



326. The Lake of Tibe'rias and the Dead Sea, in Syria, 
are situated in the deepest cavity on the earth. The surface 
of Tibe'rias is 329 feet below the level of the Mediterranean, 
and surrounded by verdant plains, while the Dead Sea is 
1312 feet below the same level, presenting .a scene of deso- 
lation and solitude, encompassed by desert sands, and bleak, 
stony salt hills. The difference of level between these two 
lakes is 983 feet in little more than 60 miles, which gives the 
course of the Jordan a rapid current. The water of the 
Dead Sea is very salt and bitter. 

327. The characteristic feature of Asia Minor, and of all 
the table land of Western Asia, 

and the neighboring steppes, is the M 

number and magnitude of the salt ^^ 
lakes. These lakes are fed by gg 
springs, rain, and melted snow; 
and having no outlets, the surplus 
water is carried off by evaporation. 
The soil of the table land, is vol- 
canic, which may account for the 
saltness of the waters. 

328. Lake^Van, in Turkey, and 
Lake Ooroomee'a, in Persia, are 
separated only by a low range of 
hills. Their waters are salt, and 
they are about 240 miles in cir- 
cumference. Persia is remarkably 
destitute of water. The Lake of 




The Lena. Yenisei. Obi. Remark on the Siberian rivers. — 326. Locality of 
the Lake of Tiberias and Dead Sea. Special remark on Lake Tiberias. On 
the Dead Sea. Their difference of level. Water of the Dead Sea. — 327. 
Characteristic feature of the table lands of Western Asia. Supply and waste 
of the waters. Soil. — 328. Lake Van, and Lake Ooroomeea. Waters of Per- 
10 



110 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Ztlr'rah, on the frontiers of Afghanistan', is the only sheet of 
water on the Avestern part of the table land of Ii'an'. 

329. The Cas'pian, usnally termed a sea, is the largest 
salt lake in the world. Its surface is 83 feet below the level 
of the ocean, and is from 120 to 350 miles wide, and 760 
miles long from north to south. It is surrounded by Tartary, 
Persia, and Cauca'sian countries, and the Rtis'sian govern- 
ments of Astracan' and O'renboorg. It receives the waters 
of the Vorga, the U'ral, and other great rivers on the north, 
but has no outlet. 

330. Lake A'ral lies, east of the Cas'pian, and its surface 
is 118 feet higher. It is nearly 300 miles long, and 150 miles 
wide. Its waters are less salt than the Cas'pian, and it is so 
shallow that none but flatboats are used in its navigation. 
It has no outlet. 

331. The small number of lakes in the Himalay'a is one 
of the peculiarities of these mountains. Lake Woo'ler, in 
the Valley of Cashmere', is the only one of any magnitude. 
On the table lands there are many lakes, both fresh and salt. 
Lake Pal'teh is very remarkable on account of its form, being 
that of a ring. It is situated at the northern foot of the 
Himalay'a, about 60 miles south of Las'sa. 

332. The sacred lakes of Mansarowar' and Ra'kas-Tal, 
in Great Tibet', occupy a space of about 400 square miles 
north of the Himalay'a, in 31° N. lat., and 81° E. Ion., and 
they mark the point from around which all the great rivers 
rising in the Himalay'a have their origin. These lakes have 
an citation of 15,200 feet above the level of the sea. The 
Ten'gri-Nor, in Tibet', the Ko'ko-Nor and Lop-Nor, in Chi- 
nese Tartary, are all large lakes. 

333. The lakes in the Altai' range are beautiful, larger, 
and more numerous than in any other mountain cham. They 
are situated at different elevations on the terraces by which 
the table lands descend to the plains of Sibe'ria. Lake Bal'- 
kal is the largest, having an area of 14,800 square miles, 
and an elevation of 1535 feet. It lies amidst lofty granite 
mountains, receiving many streams from its basin, and has 
for its principal outlet the River Angara', which, though very 
rapid, is said to carry off but a tenth part of its mass of 
waters. 

sia. Lake of Zurrah. — 329. The Caspian Sea. — 330. Lake AraL — 331. Pe- 
culiarity of the Himalaya Mountains. Lake Palteh. — 332. The sacred lakes. 
Lakes of Chinese Tartary. — 333. Lakes of the Altai Mountains. Lake 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. Ill 



§ 7. Geology of Asia. 

334. The crest of the Himalay''a is of stratified crystalline 
rocks, especially gneiss, with large granite veins, and beds 
of quartz of huge magnitude. The zone, between 15,000 
and 18,000 feet above the level of the sea, is formed chiefly 
of paleozo^ic strata. Granite is most frequent at the base, 
and probably forms the foundation of the chain. Strata of 
otolites occur at great elevations. In the Yablon'noi range, 
and in other parts, there are whole mountains of por'phyry, 
with red and green jas'per. Coal is also found. The Sibe'- 
rian mountains far surpass the Andes in the richness of their 
gold mines. Rocks of the paleozo'ic series occupy the greater 
part of the Altai'. There are no volcanic rocks west of the 
Yenise'i, but they abound to the east of that river, even to 
Kamtchat'ka. 



Table of Minerals of Asia, 

DiAMO>T)S. — India and Siberia. 

Other Precious Stones. — Birmah, Siam', India, Chinese empire, Persia^ 
Siberia, and Toorkistan. 

Gold. — Japan, Chinese empire, Siberia, Birmah, Anam', Siam', Malay'a, As- 
sam', &c. 

Silver. — China, Russia, Japan, Asia Minor. 

Tin. — Birmah, Siam', Malay'a, China, and Anam'. 

Mercitry. — China, Tibet', Japan, India, and Ceylon. 

Copper. — Japan, Siberia, Asia Minor, Anam', India, and Persia. 

Iron. — Siberia, India, China, Siam', Anam', Asia Minor, Afghanistan', Per- 
sia^ and Japan. 

Lead. — China, Siberia, Siam', Japan, Persia, Arabia, Asia Minor. 

Coal. — Chinese eihpire, Turkey, India, Japan. 

Salt. — Chinese empire, India, Siberia, Turkey, Persia, and Arabia. 

Baikal. — 334. Geology. Crest of the Himalaya. 15,000 feet elevation. 
Oolites. Yablonnoi range. Siberian Mountains. AJtai Mountains. 



112 ELEIMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 8. Questions for Review. 

335. What is a prominent feature in the reliefs of the Asiatic continent ? 

Into what two portions may the table lands of Asia be divided ? 

By what name is the western portion known ? By what tlie eastern ? 

What liighlands bound the Oriental plateau on the south ? What on 
the north ? 

What extent of area has the Oriental plateau ? Its mean elevation ? 

What two mountain chains traverse it from west to east ? 

What three sections of country are thus formed in the Oriental pla- 
teau? 

What desert occupies the eastern portion of this plateau ? 

What are the limits of the plateau of Iran' ? 

What is its area ? Its elevation ? 

What mountain summit renowned in history on this plateau ? 

What marks the descent from this plateau on the south ? 

What two desert spots in the plateau of Iran' ? 

What countries does this plateau include ? 

By what are these countries characterized ? 

What is the aspect of the country lying north of the central table 
lands of Asia ? 

What contrast is presented by those countries south of the Himalay'a 
Mountains ? 

What is the mean height of the Himalay'a range ? 

What rank does this range hold among the mountain systems of the 
world ? 

Name the principal summits of the Himalay'a. 

Which is the chief, and how high is it ? 

What two remarkable gorges in this chain of mountains ? 

What two remarkable mountain knots ? 

What four chains radiate from the western knot ? 

What chains radiate from the eastern knot ? 

What are the physical aspects of Hindostan' ? 

What remarkable features mark the In'do-Chinese Peninsula ? 

Describe the Cauca'sian Mountains. 

Where is Kamtchat'ka, and what is its character ? 

What islands extend from Kamtchat'ka along the coast as far as Ma- 
lay'a Peninsula ? 

What is the nature of these islands ? 

What is the character of Mantchod'ria ? 

What lowlands lie between the base of the Himalay'a and the Dec'can? 

Describe the Syrian plateau. 

Describe the Arabian plateau. 

What river system in Western Asia ? 

What six important rivers flow from the southern side of the Oriental 

lU? 

Describe the course of the Indus. 

Describe the course of the Brahmap66'tra. The Gan'ges. 

What does the river system of In'do-Chi'na comprise ? 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP ASIA. 113 

Whsit four rivers take their origin on the eastern declivity of the Ori- 
ental plateau ? 

What three river systems characterize the northern declivity ? 

What is the character of the lakes of Western Asia ? 

Describe the Cas'pian Lake. 

Describe Lake A'ral. The lakes of Palestine. 

Where is Lake Woo'ler ? 

What singular fact concerns Lake Pal'teh ? 

Wliat and where are the sacred lakes? Principal lakes in Chinese' 
Tailary ? 

Describe Lake Bai'kal. 

What inland bodies of water in Europe, Africa, and Asia lie between 
the 10th and 50th parallels of north latitude ? 

What important river west of the Red Sea ? 

What two rivers north-east of the Red Sea ? 

What rivers of Asia lie north-east of these inland seas ? 

What is a remarkable feature in the southern and eastern coast line of 
Asia? 

10 # 



I 

i CHAPTER X. 

SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA. 
Preparatory Exercises on the Map of Africa. 

336. How is Africa bounded ? 

What branches of the Atlantic indent the western coast ? 

What branches of the Mediterranean in the north ? 

What branches of the Gulf of Guin'ea in the west ? 

What branches of the In'dian Ocean in the east ? 

What passage of water from the Gulf of A'den to the Red Sea ? 

WTiat passage separates Madagas'car from Africa ? 

How is Africa connected with Asia ? 

What islands along the east coast of Africa ? 

What noted groups of islands west and north-west of Africa ? 

Which is the most northern cape ? Eastern ? 

Which is the most southern cape ? Western ? 

What cape north of Moroc'co ? 

What capes between Cape Verd and Cape Spar'tel ? 

What between Cape Verd and Gulf of Biaf ra ? 

What between Gulf of Biaf'ra and Cape Agul'has ? 

What between Cape Agul'has and Cape Guardafui' ? 

Where are Capes Am'ber and St. Mary ? 

What important islands lie east of Madagas'car ? 

What two pelag'ic islands west of Lower Guln'ea ? 

What great circle crosses Africa ? 

On which side of it is the greater part of Africa ? 

What other circles cross Africa ? Where ? 

Between what parallels does Africa extend ? 

Between what meridians ? 

What countries border on the Mediterranean ? 
. What on the Red Sea ? 
\ What on the Lidian Ocean ? 

What at the southern extremity of Africa ? 

What on the Atlantic, between Saha'ra and Cape Colony ? 

What region extends eastward from Senegam'bia to Abyssin'ia ? 

How is the Saha'ra Desert bounded ? 

What is the northern Hmit of the negro races ? 

What republic in the west of Africa ? 

What are the latitude and longitude of the Island of St. Hele'na ? 

Between what meridians does the Nile hold its course ? 

(114) 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP AFRICA. 116 

What section of the United States corresponds in latitude with the 
Barbary States ? 

What part of the American continent corresponds with the Saha'ra 
Desert in latitude ? 

What circle intersects the desert from east to west ? 



§ 1. Extent and General Features of Africa. 

337. Africa, one of the three southern continents, is next 
to Asia in extent of surface. It is a solid mass of land, with 
a somewhat regular line of coast, unbroken by any large 
peninsulas, bays, or gulfs, excepting in the wide and deep 
indentation on the south-west side. It is bounded on the north 
by the Mediterranean Sea and Straits of GibraFtar ; east by 
the Red Sea, Straits of Babelman'deb, Gulf of A'den, and 
Indian Ocean ; south by the Southern Ocean ; and west by 
the Atlantic. It extends fi'om 37° 07' N. to 34° 51' S. lat., 
and from 17° 34' W. to 51° 21' E. Ion. Its surface is esti- 
mated at 11,870,000 square miles, and its coast line is 16,000 
miles, or 1 to every 741 square miles of surface. 

338. In the north are the Barbary States and Saha'ra 
Desert; Egypt, Nd'bia, and Abyssin'ia occupy the north- 
east ; along the southern border of the desert lie the countries 
of Soodan', Senegam'bia, Libe'ria, and Upper Guin'ea; on 
the borders of the Indian Ocean are A'jan, Zanguebar', 
Mozambique', Sofa 'la, and Caf'ferland ; at the southern ex- 
tremity is the Cape Colony ; and along the South Atlantic 
coast are Loan'go, Con'go, Ango'la, and Bengue'la. The in- 
terior of Southern Africa is an unexplored country. 

339. The largest indentation of the coast is that formed 
by the Gulf of Guin'ea, on the south-west, from which two 
branches extend more inland — the Gulfs of Benin' and 
Biaf'ra. On the north are the Gulfs of Cabes and Si'dia, 
branches of the Mediterranean Sea. Moroc'co and T6'nis 
are the most northerly projections, while A'jan and Ca})e 
Guardafui' form the eastern point. 

340. Africa, with the exception of the mountainous region 
of the Atlas and the small table land of Bar'ca, may be said 

337. Africa. General features of Africa. Boundaries. Extent. Area 
Coast line. — 338. National divisions. — 339. Gulfs on the west. Indentations 
and projectiq;^^ ou the north and ea^t. — 340. JR.eliefs of Africa, flateau of 



116 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

to consist of only two parts, a high and a low country. In 
place of mountain chains enclosing central plains, it has a 
vast central plateau occupying the southern half of the con- 
tinent, with two branches in the highlands of Soodan' and 
Abyssm'ia. This plateau has narrow lowlands on the coast, 
and descends on the north into the desert plains of Northern 
Africa, limited by the independent table lands of Barbary 
and Bar'ca. 



§ 2. Mountain Systems of Africa. 

341. The Atlas and Spanish mountains form the western 
extremity of the great zone of high land that girds the Old 
World. Along the north-west of Africa, the elevated Atlas 
system extends in a broad belt from the Atlantic to the Gulf 
of Si'dra, in the Mediterranean, enclosing all the highlands 
of Moroc'co, Alge'ria, and Td'nis. This system consists of 
three parts — the Great, the Little, and the Middle Atlas. 

342. The Great Atlas chain is farthest inland, extending 
from Cape Bojador' on the Atlantic, in a north-east direction, 
forming in Moroc'co a mountain knot of 11,400 feet elevation, 
with abrupt precipices. The Little Atlas begins at Cape 
Spar'tel, opposite Gibral'tar, and runs parallel to the Medi- 
terranean as far as Cape Bon, the northern point of T6'nis. 
The Middle Atlas, lying between the two former chains, 
consists of a table land rich in valleys, rivers, and magnifi- 
cent forests, with a delightful climate. 

343. The table land of Bar'ca is a small, detached plateau, 
rising precipitously from the sea, and forming a lev-el fertile 
district of about 1500 feet elevation, and descending gradu- 
ally towards the desert. 

344. A mountain range, commencing with Table Mountain, 
3582 feet high, at the Cape of Good Hope, skirts the south- 
ern and eastern coasts of Africa, and terminates in the vast 
promontory of Abyssm'ia. This range appears in three prin- 
cipal sections — the Snow Mountains in Cape Colony and 
Caf ferland ; the Lupa'ta Mountains in Mozambique' ; and 
the Mountains of the Moon, or Kom'ri chain, commencing in 
Zanguebar' at about 8° S. lat. 

345. The Mountains of the Moon attain their greatest 
elevation between the third and fourth parallels of south 

the south. Lowlands on the coast and in the north. — 341. The Atlas and 
Spanish mountains. The Atlas system of mountains. Three parts. — 342. 
Great Atlas. Little Atlas. Middle Atlas.— 343. Table land of Barca.— 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA. 



IIT 



latitude, and are the highest in Africa. 
The peak of Kilimanjaro, three de- 
grees south of the equator, in the coun- 
try of Mo'no-Moe'zi, rises to an eleva- 
tion of 20,000 feet. It is supposed by- 
some geographers that the River Nile 
has its highest source in this vicinity. 

346. Abyssinia is crossed by two 
ranges of mountains — that of Go'jam 
on the west, and of ScL'men in the 
centre. The Kong Mountains are 
situated in the western part of Africa, 
having Soodan' on the north, Sene- 
gam'bia on the west, and Guin'ea on 
the south. In the western portion the 
elevation is about 3000 feet. The 
Cameroons' Mountains, near the coast 
of Biafra, rise to an elevation of 13,000 
feet, and are of volcanic formation. 



§ 3. Plateaus of Africa. 

347. Southern Africa is an exten- 
sive table land, reaching from the 
Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, and from 
the Cape of Good Hope to the plains 
of Soodan', north of the equator. On 
three sides it descends in narrow par- 
allel terraces, separated by mountain 
ridges, and decreasing in height as 
they approach the ocean. The struc- 
ture of the northern declivity is be- 
lieved to be similar, though only its 
eastern and western extremities are 
known. Very little is known of the 
interior of this plateau. 

348. The promontory of AbyssTn'ia 
projects from the table land for 300 
miles into the lowlands of North Af- 
rica. It dips to a low, swampy region 
on the north, to the plains of Sennaar' 



n\'^^ 




344. Mountain ranp:e of Southern and Eastern Africa. Three sections. — 345. 

Mountains of the Moon. Peak of Kilimanjaro. Source of the Nile River. 

346. Mountains in Abyssinia. Kong Mountains. Cameroons Mountains. — 



118 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

and Kordofan' on the west, and on the east, from the plateau 
of Ti'gre, an elevation of 9000 feet, it sinks abruptly to the 
coast at a short distance from the E-ed Sea, The table land 
of Abyssm'ia is a succession of undulating plains, broken by 
mountain masses, which, in the south, attain a height of 
about 13,500 feet These plains are intersected by numerous 
tributaries to the Nile. This elevated country has lakes, 
swamps, verdant meadows, and cultivated fields. 



§4. Declivities and Plains of Africa. 

349. The waters that descend from the northern declivity 
of the South African plateau fertilize a tract of country 
stretching from sea to sea across the continent, forming the 
commencement of the African lowlands. This is Soodan', 
comprising many kingdoms and commercial cities, and con- 
taining large lakes, poisonous swamps, deep forests of gigantic 
trees, and vast solitudes. It is narrow, compared with its 
length. At about 15° N. lat., which is the northern limit of 
the negro races, the moisture becomes less, and the soil grad- 
ually worse, till at length the barren waste of the Great Sa- 
ha'ra begins. 

350. The vast Desert of Saha'ra is bounded on the north 
by the Barbary States and Mediterranean Sea ; east by the 
Valley of the Nile ; south by Soodan' and the countries wa- 
tered by the Senegal' River, and west by the Atlantic. Its 
breadth varies from 700 to 1500 miles, and the length is nearly 
3000 miles from east to west, which is even prolonged for 
miles into the Atlantic Ocean, in the form of sand banks. At 
the Great Syr'tis, or Gulf of Sl'dra, the desert reaches the 
shores of the Mediterranean. The surface of the desert 
appears to be composed chiefly of sandstone and loose sand. 
Every part is almost entirely destitute of vegetation. On the 
eastern and northern borders fresh water rises near the sur- 
face, and produces an occasional o'asis, or fertile spot in the 
midst of barrenness. These o'ases are generally depressed 
below the level of the desert; the smaller ones producing 
herbage, ferns, acacias, and some shrubs — the larger con- 
taining forests of date palms. The western part is a low 
region of burning sands, moving in waves like the sea. The 
wind blows from the east nine months in the year, and at the 

347. Plateau of Southern Africa. Descents from the plateau. The northern 
declivity. — 348. Promontory of Abyssinia. Its descents. Table land of Abys- 
sinia. — 349. The country of Soodan. Northern limit of the negro races. — 3oO. 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA; 119 

equinoxes, in March and September, it rushes in a hurricane, 
driving the sand in clouds before it. In this section the o'ases 
are rare. 

351. East of the Saha'ra are the Nu'bian and Lib'yan 
Deserts, where the continent descends towards the Medi- 
terranean, in terraces of sandy or gravelly deserts, separated 
by rocky ridges. This tract, which comprises Egypt and 
Nu'bia, is flanked by rocky eminences running from the 
table land towards the north, and is cut transversely by the 
Nile, and by a deep furrow parallel to it, in which there is a 
long line of o'ases. 

352. The plains of Zanguebar' and Mozambique' are fertile 
in palm trees and great quantities of grain, and noble forests 
cover the mountains ; but the eastern coast, from Cape Guar- 
dafui' to 4° N. lat., is a continued desert. Another barren 
tract succeeds at the southern extremity of the Lupa'ta 
Mountains. 

353. The lowland of Cape Colony is a fertile, well-watered 
plain, richly adorned with grass and trees, and having a mild 
and agreeable climate. The country here, as also along the 
western coast, descends from the table land in successive 
terraces. The low plains of Biafra and Benin' consist en- 
tirely of swamps loaded with rank vegetation. 



§ 5. River Systems of Africa. 

354. The tropical climate, and the extremes of the dry and 
rainy seasons, give a marked peculiarity to the river systems 
of Africa. 

355. The Nile, on account of its comparative magnitude 
and historical interest, takes the first rank. Two large rivers 
unite in the plains of Sennaar' at Khartoom' to form the 
Nile — the Bahr-el- A'biad, or White Nile, and the Bahi--el- 
Az'rek, or Blue Nile. 

356. The White Nile is supposed, by some, to rise in 
Mount Kilimanjaro, south of the equator, and by others still 
farther south, in Lake MaraVi ; and amidst many ^vindings, 
receiving many affluents, takes a general direction towards 
the north. 

357. The Blue Nile, rising in the Galla country, south of 

Sahara Desert. Boundaries. Extent. Surface. Oases. Western part- of 
the desert. — 351, Nubian and Libyan Deserts. Countries occupying this tract. 
— 352. Eastern coast of Africa. — 353. Lowland of Cape Colony. Plains of 
Biafra and Benin. — 354. Remark on the waters of Africa. — 3o5. The Nile. 
Its sources. — 356. The White Nile. —357. The Blue Nile. Point of confluence. 



120 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOCxRAPHY. 

Abyssin'ia, receives in its north-westerly course many tribu- 
taries, of which the Abai' is the largest. The Blue Nile joins 
the White in 15° 40' N. lat, and 32° 30' E. Ion. At some 
distance below their confluence, the River Tacaz'ze flows 
into the Nile ; and from this point down to the Mediterranean, 
a distance of 1200 miles, the Nile does not receive a single 
brook. 

358. The Nile, soon after it receives the Tacaz'ze, makes 
a remarkable bend to the west and south, and again to the 
north, called the Great Bend of the Nile. In its course through 
the Nu'bian Desert, it forms several cataracts, the last of 
which is at Assouan', where it enters Egypt. At 90 miles 
from the sea, the Nile is divided into two heads. One, running 
north-west, enters the Mediterranean below Boset'ta; the 
other, north-east, enters the sea at Damiet'ta, so that the 
Del'ta, between them, has a sea coast of 187 miles. 

359. The basin of the Nile is wide in Ethio'pia and Nu'bia ; 
but for the greater part of its winding course of nearly 3000 
miles, it is merely " a verdant line of the softest beauty, " 
suddenly and strongly contrasted with the dreary waste of 
the desert. From the great elevation of its sources, the upper 
part enjoys a perpetual spring, though passing under the 
equator. At the foot of the table land of Abyssin'ia the 
country is covered with dense jungles, while the rest of the 
valley is the rich soil brought down by the Nile from the 
mountains. 

360. Egypt is wholly dependent upon the Nile for its fer- 
tility. Without the moistening influence and the periodical 
deposits of sediment from this river, the Saha'ra would 
extend to the Red Sea. The rise of the river, which is 
caused by the heavy annual rains within the tropics, com- 
mences about the month of June, attains its height in 
September, and, after remaining stationary for some days, 
gradually subsides until the last of December, when it is very 
low. The surface of the land, having thus received a fresh 
layer of mud, is put under cultivation. The extent of inun- 
dation in Upper Egypt is comparatively small ; but in Lower 
Egypt it overspreads most of the Delta and the adjacent 
plains. A rise suflicient to fertilize the whole country is 
from 25 to 28 feet. 

361. The River Ni'ger (Ni'jer), or Quor'ra, and in its 

Tributary below their confluence. — 358. Course below the Tacazze. Cataracts. 
Mouths of the Nile. The Delta.— 359. Basin of the Nile. Aspects of the 
upper, middle, and lower portions of the basin. — 360. Influence of this river 
upon Egypt. Rise of the Nile. Extent of inundation.— 3G1. The Niger. Source, 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA. 121 

upper portion called the Jol'iba, is the second great river of 
Africa. It rises on the northern slope of the Kong Moun- 
tains, m the Bambar'ra country, and taking a north-easterly 
direction on the high table lands of Soodan' as far as Tim- 
biic'too, 16° N. lat, it bends round south-east and south, and 
intersecting the Kong Mountains in about 6° E. Ion., it flows 
across the lowlands into the Gulf of Guin'ea, after a course 
of more than 2300 miles. At the point where the Ni'ger 
breaks through the mountains, it receives a large tributary 
coming from the east and north. This is the Tchad'da River, 
wliich is probably the outlet of Lake Tchad. The Ni'ger, 
throughout its long, winding course, lies wholly between the 
5th and 20th parallels of north latitude,_and is subject to pe- 
riodical inundations. In August the plains of Soodan' are 
covered with water and crowded with boats. 

362. The coast of GuTn'ea west from the Ni'ger is watered 
by many small streams from the Kong Mountains. The 
river system of Senegam'bia comprises the Senegal', the 
Gam'bia, and the Ri'o Gran'de, which flow from the high- 
lands in rapids, and pursue most of their course through a 
flat lowland. The Con'go, or Zaire', rises in the southern 
table land, and flows west into the Atlantic, in about 6° S. 
lat. The Coan'za runs west nekrly along the 9th parallel 
of south latitude. 

363. The Or'ange, or Gareep', is the largest of the southern 
rivers, having a long course on the table land of South Af- 
rica, and flowing westward into the Atlantic. Though a large 
stream in the rainy season, it is often dry. The great interior 
basin of the Or'ange River, which consists of grassy valleys, 
is separated from Cafli-a'ria by the mountain crests which lie 
about 100 miles westward from the Indian Ocean. 

364. All the rivers which flow across the plains of Mo- 
zambique' and ZangLiebiir' into the Indian Ocean have their 
sources m the eastern edge of the table lands. The Zam- 
be'ze, the Ozay', and the Ja'ba are the largest. They all have 
but little water at their mouths in the dry season, but in the 
rainy season they are navigable for many miles. Some still 
farther north do not reach the sea at all times of the year, but 
are lost in lakes or marshes, as the Haines, which approaches 
very near the Indian Ocean, then runs southward parallel to 
the coast, and falls into Bat'ti Lake. 

Direction. Termination. Tributary. Limits of the Niger. Inundations. — 
362. Waters of the coast of Guinea. River system of Senegambia. The Con- 
go. The Coanza. — 363. The Orange. Basin of the Orange. — 364. Rivers 
11 



122 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 6. Lakes of Africa. 

365. The principal region of African lakes is the plains of 
Soodan', and the country along the base of the northern de- 
clivity of the table land. Lake Tchad is the largest, and is 
in the very centre of the continent. It is as yet but imper- 
fectly known. It receives many affluents from the surround- 
ing country, and is supposed to be connected with the Ni'ger 
through the Tchad'da River. Lake FIt'tre and Lake Had'i- 
ba, situated to the east of Lake Tchad, are supposed to con- 
tribute their waters to it. 

366. Lake Dib'bie is an expansion of the Ni'ger west of 
Timbuc'too. The beautiful Lake Dem'bea, in Abyssin'ia, 
pours its waters into the Blue Nile. Lake Mara'vi, in the 
southern table land, is a long, narrow lake, situated west 
of Zanguebar' and Mozambique'. Its course is from south- 
east to north-west, and is supposed to be connected with 
the Nile. Lake N'ga^mi, recently discovered, is situated in 
20° S. lat, and 22° E. Ion., and has been but partially ex- 
plored. Its outlet, the Zou'ga, has not been traced to a ter- 
mination, ^ 

§ 7. Geology of Africa. 

367. Granite, w^hich is the base of Southern Africa, rises to 
a considerable height in many places, and is generally sur- 
mounted by vast horizontal beds of sandstone, which cause 
the peculiar flatness of the summits of many of the Cape 
mountains. Granite comes to the surface in the lower parts 
of Abyssinia, but sandstone predominates in the upper parts, 
and assumes the tabular form, often lying on the tops of 
mountains in enormous flat masses. Large tracts of ancient 
volcanic rocks occur in Shoa. Trap rocks abound in some 
parts, with basalt'. The base of the sandy parts of North 
Africa is stiff* clay ; in Lower Nubia red and white granite 
prevail, followed by argilla^ceous sandstone. Middle Egypt 
is calcareous ; and lower down the alluvium of the Nile 
covers the surface. 

of Mozambique and Zanguebar. Three largest. Haines River. — 365. Lake 
region of Africa. Lake Tchad. Lake Fittre and Lake Hadiba. — 366. Lake 
Dibbie. Lake Dembea. Lake Maravi. Lake N'gami. — 367. Geology. Struc- 
ture of Southern Africa. Abyssinia. Northern Africa. Lower Nubia. Mid- 
dle Egypt, &c. 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP AFRICA. 123 



Table of Minerals of Africa. 

Diamonds. —Alge'ria. 

Other Precious Stones. — Lower Guinea, Egypt. 

Gold. — Guinea, Soodan', sources of the Nile. 

Silver. — Eastern Africa, Soodan'. 

Copper. — Soodan', Eastern Africa, Southern Africa, region of the Nile, Mo- 

roc'co. 
Lead. — Alge'ria, &c. 

Iron. — Soodan', Southern Africa, Eastern Africa, Alge'ria, and Abyssin'ia. 
Salt. — Moroc'co, Abyssin'ia, Soodan'. f 



§ 8. Questions for Review. 



368. Wherein does the contour' of Africa diflfer from that of otiier 
continents ? 

What features of relief predominate ? 

By what is the southern half of the continent occupied ? What the 
northern half? 

Does any portion of Africa belong to the great mountain zone of the 
old world ? 

Describe the Atlas system of mountains. 

What elevation has the mountain knot of Morocco ? 

What are the extent and height of the table land of Bar'ca ? 

Where is Table Mountain ? 

Of what range is it the commencement ? 

What three sections compose this range ? 

Where do the Mountains of the Moon attain their greatest elevation ? 

Location and height of Mount Kilimanjaro ? 

What river is supposed to originate in this region ? 

What mountains in Abyssinia ? 

Where are the Kong Mountains, and what is their elevation ? 

Wliat mountains near the coast of Biaf ra ? 

What kind of declivity forms the descent from the southern table land 
on three sides ? 

What is the supposed structm-e of the northern declivity ? 

Describe the promontory of Abyssin'ia. 

What is the height of the plateau of Ti'gi-e ? • 

By what is the elevated country of Abyssin'ia characterized ? 

What are the physical aspects of Soodan' ? 

Between what parallels of latitude is the Saha'ra Desert ? 

By what fertile countries is it bounded ? 

What are its length and breadth ? 

In which part of the desert are oases most frequent ? 



124 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

What are the physical aspects of Egypt and N^lbia ? 
What is the character of the lowland of Cape Colony ? 
What of the plains of Biaf ra and Benin' ? 
Which is the chief of the river systems of this continent ? 
What tM'o large streams unite in the plains of Sennaar to form the Nile ? 
Trace the course of the White Nile. 
Trace the course of the Blue Nile. 
What are the latitude and longitude of their junction ? 
What tributary of the Nile joins it below the junction ? 
What singular circumstance attends the Nile below the confluence of 
Tacaz'ze ? 

How does the Nile enter the sea ? 

What would Egypt become should the Nile cease to flow ? 

In what part of Africa is the River Niger ? 

Tmce its course. 

What tributary of the Niger flows from the eastward ? 

Describe the river system of Senegam'bia. 

Where are the Con'go and Coan'za Rivers ? 

Which is the chief river of South Africa ? 

What are its rise, course, and termination ? 

Which is the lake region of Africa ? 

Name the principal lakes. 



CHAPTER XI. 

SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

369. Australia is the smallest of the three southern con- 
tinents, and though reckoned with the continental group of 
the Old World, is wholly detached from it. It lies south of 
the Asiatic Archipelago, between 10° and 39° S. lat., and 
113° and 154° E, Ion.; having the Pacific Ocean on the E., the 
Southern Ocean on the S., the Indian Ocean on the W., and 
on the N. the Sea of Timor and Torres Strait, separating it 
from Timor and Papua. Its length from east to west is about 
2700 miles, breadth from north to south near 2000 miles, and 
comprising an area of nearly 3,000,000 square miles, with a 
coast line of 7600 miles, or 1 to 390 miles of surface. 

370. Australia, like the continents of Africa and South 
America, is but little indented with branches of the ocean. 
The principal indentations are the Gulf of Carpentaria and 
Cambridge Gulf on the north. Port Philip, the Gulf of St. 
Vincent, and Spencer Gulf on the south, and Shark Bay, with 
a few others, on the western coast. Only the south-eastern 
part, with ^mall sections in the south and west, and an in- 
considerable tract in the north near Port Essington, have as 
yet been thoroughly explored. Much of the interior of this 
continent is still unknown. 

371. The most remarkable feature of the eastern side is a 
long cham of mountains near the coast, extending from Cape 
York at Tor'res Strait, south to Wilson Promontory, and is 
continued through the whole of Van Die'men's Land to South 
Cape, where it ends. In the northern parts the chain is low, 
but about 30° S. latitude it assumes the form of a regular 
mountain chain. The average elevation is between three 
and four thousand feet. The Austrahan Alps, or Warragong 
Mountains, belong to this chain, and are constantly covered 
with snow. Mount Kosciusco, one of the peaks of this range, 

369. Australia compared "with the other continents. Boundaries. Extent. 
Area. Coastline. — 370. Bays. Straits. Explored parts. Of the interior. — 
37L Eastern portion. Average height of the highlands. Loftiest summits, 
11* (125) 



126 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

rises to the height of 6510 feet, and Mount York in the Blue 
Mountains rises' to 3292 feet. The rugged and savage char- 
acter of these mountains far exceeds what might be expected 
from their height. The spurs give them a terrific character, 
and in many places render them inaccessible, both in New- 
South Wales and in Van Die'men's Land. These spurs shoot 
right and left from the main range, equal to it in height, and 
separated from it and from one another by dark gullies, im- 
passable precipices, and streams flowing through them in 
black, silent eddies, or foaming torrents. 

372. In New South Wales, the country slopes westward 
from these mountains to a low, flat, unbroken plain. On the 
east side, darkly verdant and round-topped hills and ridges are 
promiscuously grouped together, leadmg to a richly -wooded, 
undulating country, which gradually descends to the coast, 
and forms the valuable lands of the British colony. On the 
western side of Australia, the land is generally inferior near 
the coast, with richer tracts near the rivers. None of the 
rivers of Australia are navigable to any great distance from 
their mouths. The Mur'ray River, which, with its tributaries, 
is said to drain a surface of 400,000 square miles, flows into 
the sea by a very small mouth. The want of water is severely 
felt in the interior, which, as far as known, is a treeless desert 
of sand, swamps, and jungle. 

373. Productions. — Granite, sandstone, limestone, coal, 
and slates are the chief inineral products ; and rich ores of 
gold, copper, and lead have recently been discovered. The 
gold district is at Bathurst, at the foot of the Blue Mountains, 
about 100 miles west of Sydney. Of the 5710 plants dis- 
covered in Australia, 5440 are peculiar to it. It is remarkable 
that, with one or two exceptions, there are no indigenous 
fruits. Timber in general is of inferior quality. Sheep 
farming is the most flourishing branch of industry, and it is 
principally as a wool-growing country that Australia is rising 
in commercial importance. Sydney, the capital and largest 
town, has one of the best harbors in the world. The other 
important places are Melbourne, Portland Bay, Albany, Free- 
mantle, and Perth. Hobart ToAvn is the capital of Van Die'- 
men's land. 

374. New Zealand, divided into three islands by rocky 
and dangerous channels, is superior to Australia in soil, 
fertility, and beauty. High mountains, of volcanic origin, 

Character of these mountains. — 372. Reliefs of New South Wales. The land on 
the west. Murray River. Of water in the interior. — 373. Minerals. Gold region 
of Australia. Plants, &c. Sydney. Other towns. Hobart Town. — 374. New 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 127 

extend through the islands, which, in the most northerly, rise 
to nearly 10,000 feet above the sea, with two thirds of their 
height buried in snow and gla'ciers. The coast is a broken 
country, covered with a luxuriant but dark vegetation. There 
are table lands of great extent, without a tree, but the moun- 
tain ridges are clothed with dense and gigantic forests. 
There is much good land, and many lakes, with navigable 
rivers, the best of harbors, and a mild climate. Auckland is 
the capital. 

375. Papua or New Guinea, next north of Australia, is 
1100 miles long, and 400 wide, with mountains rising to the 
height of 16,000 feet, capped with snow. From the little that 
is known of it, it is believed to be one of the finest countries 
in that region. The bird of paradise is found here. 

376. Borneo, a large island north-west of Australia, is 
crossed by the equator, and traversed through its whole length 
by magnificent chains of mountains. Fine rivers flow from 
them to the plains. Diamonds, gold, and antimony are among 
its minerals ; gums, gutta percha, precious woods, and ■ all 
kinds of spices and tropical fruits are among its vegetable 
productions. Borne'o is the chief town. 

377. The Sunda Group of islands, comprising Sumatra, 
Java, Bally, Sumbawa, Floris, Sandalwood, and Timor, form 
one of the most terribly active regions of volcanic action in 
the world, and there is not a spot of its size on the face of 
the earth that contains so many volcanoes as the Island of 
Java. A range of volcanic mountains, from 5000 to 14,000 
feet high, forms the central crest of the island, and ends to 
the east in a series of 38 separate volcanoes with broad bases, 
rising gradually into cones. Most of them are of great an- 
tiquity, and are covered with thick vegetation. Some are ex- 
tinct, or only emit smoke ; from others sulphurous vapors issue 
with great violence ; one has a large crater filled with boiling 
water, and a few have had fierce eruptions of late years. In 
1772 the greater part of one of the largest volcanic mountains 
was swallowed up, after a short but severe combustion ; a 
luminous cloud enveloped the mountain on the 1 1th of August, 
and soon after the high mass actually disappeared under the 
earth with tremendous noise, carrying with it about 90 square 
miles of the surrounding country, 40 villages, and nearly 3000 
of their inhabitants. The northern coast of Java is flat and 
swampy, but the southern parts are beautiful and romantic, 
yet in the lovely, peaceful valleys, the stillness of night is 

Zealand. Divisions. Mountains. The coast. Table lands. Capital. — 375. 
Papua. — 376. Borneo. Minerals and vegetables. — 377. Of the Sunda Islands. 



128 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

disturbed by the deep roaring of the volcanoes. In Sumatra 
the extensive granitic formations of Eastern Asia join the 
volcanic series which occupies so large a portion of the Pacific. 
This most beautiful of islands presents the boldest aspect ; 
it is indented by arms of the most transparent sea, and wa- 
tered by innumerable streams ; it displays in its vegetation 
all the bright coloring of the tropics. Here the submarine 
fire finds vent in three volcanoes on the southern, and one on 
the northern side of the island. 

378. The principal trading places in the Asiatic Archipelago, 
besides those already mentioned, are BataVia, Samarang', 
and Sourabay'a, in JaVa; Amboy'na, Coupang', m Timor'; 
Macas'sar, in Celebes ; Manilla, in Luzon' ; and Acheen', 
in Sumatra. 

379. Polynesia includes the numerous islands scattered 
over the Pacific Ocean, eastward from Asia, and the Asiatic 
Archipelago. They are divisible into three classes — the 
mountainous, the hilly, and the low cor'alline ; but with this 
exception, there is a general similarity of character throughout 
the whole. Though the greater part of these islands are 
within the tropics, and. the climate necessarily warm and 
little subject to change, the heat is softly tempered thi'ough 
the influence of the vast body of water that surrounds them, 
thus rendering the temperature delightful. The bread fruit 
tree supplies food, timber, gum, and cloth, which is made from 
the fibres of its bark. The co'coa nut tree affords food, drink, 
cloth, and oil. There are plantains, bana'nas, yams, sweet 
potatoes, ta'ro root, and sugar cane. 

380. These islands are mostly collected in groups, and are 
included in the following classification : 1st. The Bonin' Is- 
lands ; 2d. The Ladrone' Islands ; 3d. The Car'oline Islands ; 
4th. The Feejee' Islands; 5th. The Ton'ga, or Friendly Is- 
lands ; 6th. Navigator's Islands ; 7th. Cook's Islands ; 8th. The 
Society, Georgian, and Low Islands ; 9th. The Austral Isles ; 
10th. The Marque'sas and Washington Islands; 11th. The 
Sand'wich Islands ; 12th. The Ker'madec Islands ; and 13th. 
The Scattered Islands. 

381. The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands are the most 
interesting and important in Polyne'sia. Hawai'i is the largest, 
and is noted for the lofty summit of Mau'na Bo'a, 16,000 feet 

Java. Volcano in 1772. Sumatra. — 378. Other places of trade. — 379. 
Polynesia. Classes of islands. Climate and temperature. Productions. — 

380. Number of classes or groups. Their respective names and situation. — 

381. The SandAvich Islands. Hawaii. Mountains. Influence of missionaries. 
Honolulu. 



SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OP AUSTRALIA. 129 

high ; and the volcano of Kirawah, which, for extent, grandeur, 
and intensity of action, is the most frightful active volcano 
in the world. In 1819, through the influence of missionaries, 
the natives renounced their idols, and embraced Christianity. 
The Bible and other books have been translated into their 
language, and churches and schools established. Honolulu, 
in the Island of Oahil', is the seat of government and trade. 
The commerce is in the hands of the Americans. 



CHAPTER XII. 

GENERAL AND COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE CONTINENTS. 

*' The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof; the world, and they that 
dwell therein." — Ps, xxiv. 1. 

382. The vast continent of America, or the New "World 
of the western hemisphere, extends through upwards of 130 
degrees of longitude, from Cape St. R5que, the most east- 
erly projection of South America, to Cape Prince of Wales, 
the most westerly point of North America. It embraces 
more than 120 degrees of latitude, reaching from Point Bar'- 
row, in 72° N. lat., to the Strait of Magellan, in 54° S. lat., 
a distance of about 9000 miles. It consists of two enormous 
triangular bodies of land joined together by the Isthmus of 
Panama'. All the distinguiishing features of this continent 
are formed on the most gigantic scale, and are characterized 
by simplicity and unity. 

383. The mountain chain, which traverses its whole extent 
from north to south, is the broadest, and, excepting the Him- 
alay'a Mountains of Asia, the loftiest in the world. The 
greatest elevation is Mount Aconca'gua, in Chile, 23,910 
feet in height. 

384. Within the limits of this continent there is every 
variety of climate, from the extreme heat of the torrid zone 
to the perpetual winter of the polar regions. And the moun- 
tains are so lofty, that the same extremes of heat and cold 
may be experienced in a journey of a few hours, from the 
burning plains of Peru to the ice-clad peaks above. 

385. The plains, rivers, bays, lakes, cataracts, and forests 
of America are of unrivalled extent and grandeur. The 
number of considerable rivers is estimated at about 140. The 
animal and vegetable kingdoms present the same most re- 
markable developments and most wonderful forms. Its 

382. Extent of the American continent from east to west. From north to 
south. It consists of what ? Characteristics. — 383. Its grand mountain chain. 
Point of greatest elevation. — 384. Of climate. — 385. Plains, rivers, &c., of 

(130) 



COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE CONTINENTS. 131 

mineral resources have enriched the world with its precious 
and useful metals. 

386. The Great Eastern Continent, or Old World, is 
determined in its form by an immense zone of mountains 
and plateaus, extending from the coast of Barbary and Por- 
tugal, on the Atlantic, eastward to the farthest extremity of 
Asia, at Behr'ing's Strait. The highest point of land. Mount 
Kunchingin'ga, is in Central Asia, reaching the enormous 
height of 28,178 feet. The greatest depression is the shore 
of the Dead Sea, which, at the water level, is upwards of 
1300 feet below the level of the Mediterranean. 

387. The Spanish and Atlas Mountains form the western 
extremity of the mountain zone ; and, though now separated 
by the Straits of Gibraltar, these two ranges were undoubt- 
edly once united, as their geological formation and the direc- 
tion of their chains strongly indicate. North of the mountain 
zone lies a vast plain, extending almost from the Pyr'enees 
Mountains to the eastern extremity of Asia. The greater 
portion of this plain is nearly a dead level, broken only by the 
Scandinavian and U'ral Mountains. The lowlands south of 
the mountain zone are much indented by the ocean, and 
present the most diversified aspect. The greater part of the 
flat country lying between the ChT'na Sea and the River 
Indus is exceedingly rich and productive, while that between 
the Persian Gulf and the foot of the Atlas Mountains is, 
with some exceptions, one of the most desolate tracts on the 
face of the earth. The southern lowlands are also broken 
by a few mountain systems of considerable extent and height. 
The number of considerable rivers is estimated at about 440. 
The eastern world is usually considered as a group of three 
distinct and well-defined continents, having Asia as the body, 
with Europe and Africa as peninsular attachments. 

388. The great continents present marked differences and 
resemblances, when viewed in comparison. There is a man- 
ifest difference in the grouping. The eastern world is consoli- 
dated, while the western appears spread apart. The great 
mass of the former is north of the equator, and in the tem- 
perate zone, while the latter extends from north to south 
through four zones. 

389. Both continents commence with a broad expanse 

America. Animal and vegetable kingdoms. Minerals. — 386. By what is the 
form of the great eastern continent determined ? Point of greatest eleva- 
tion. Of greatest depression. — 387- Of the Spanish and Atlas Mountains. 
The great northern plain. The lowlands south of the mountain zone. Moun- 
tains in these lowlands. Divisions of the Old World. — 388. Comparison of 
the great continents. Of the grouping. — 389. Of the northern and southern 



132 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

tc/wards the north, and narrow doivn to a point towards the 
south. The most important peninsulas are also thus marked ; 
as that of AUas'ka, Califor'nia, Flor'ida, Scandina'via, Spain, 
Italy, Greece, Hindostan', In'do-Chi'na, Core'a, and Kamt- 
chat'ka. Almost all peninsulas extend in a southerly direc- 
tion from the continent. 

390. The southern points of all the continents are high 
and rocky, with islands or shoals as appendages. South 
America terminates in the rocky promontory of Cape Horn 
and the Ter'ra del Fue'go Islands; Africa, at the Cape of 
Good Hope, in high plateaus with the AguFhas Cape and 
banks ; Hindostan', at Cape Com'orin, in the Ghauts Moun- 
tains ; and Australia terminates at South Cape, in Van 
Die'men's Land, with high mountains. 

391. A large island, or group of islands, lies to the eastward 
of these southern extremities. South America has the Falk'- 
land group ; Africa has Madagas'car; Hindostan' has Cey- 
lon' ; and Australia has New Zealand. 

392. A curved indentation may also he observed in the 
western coasts of the continents, forming a vast gulf — in 
South America, at Ari'ca, in Perd ; in Africa, at Biaf ra, form- 
ing the Gulf of Guinea ; in Hindostan', at the Gulf of Cam- 
bay' ; and in Austra'lia, forming the Great Australian Bight. 

393. A remarkable parallelism exists between the eastern 
coast of America and the western coast of Europe and Africa, 
the projections of one corresponding to the indentations of 
the other. The point of Cape St. Roque answers to the 
Gulf of Guin'ea, and that of Cape Verd to the Gulf of Mex- 
ico. 

394. T^ie great masses of land are g'rouped two by two, in 
three double continents, either united by an isthmus or by a 
chain of islands, having an archipel'ago on the east, and a 
peninsula on the west side. North and South America form 
a double continent, united by the Isthmus of Darien', with 
the West India Islands on the east, and the peninsula of 
California on the west. Europe and Africa form a second 
double continent, having Italy and Sicily for their connect- 
ing link, with the Grecian Archipel'ago on the east, and 
the Spanish peninsula on the west. Asia and Australia 
form the third double continent, having for their bond of 
imion the continuous chain of islands between Malaj'a and 

extremes of the continents. The peninsulas. — 390. Southern points of all the 
continents. Examples. — 391. Islands eastward of these points. — 392. Re- 
semblance in the western coasts. — 393. Parallelism of the Atlantic shores. — 
394. Double continents and their appendages. Of North and South America. 



COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE CONTINENTS. 133 

Australia, with the East Indian ArchipePago on the east, and 
the peninsula of Hindostan' on the west. 

395. A great difference prevails among the several con- 
tinents respecting the extent of their coast line. Some, 
being deeply indented with gulfs and inland seas, and hav- 
ing several peninsulas, have a very extended coast line ; 
while others, more compact, and with few indentations or 
projections, have a comparatively short line of coast. The 
followinor table exhibits these differences : — 



Continents. Square Miles. 



Europe, 3,900,000 

North and Central America, . . . 8,000,000 

South America, 8,200,000 

Asia, 17,500,000 

Africa, 11,870,000 

Australia, 3,000,000 



Length of 


Sq. Miles for 


Coast Line. 


1 of Coast. 


17,000 


229 


24,000 


345 


13,600 


602 


35,000 


500 


16,000 


741 


7,600 


390 



396. Europe is more varied in its outline than either of 
the other continents. It is deeply indented in all parts by 
the ocean and by inland seas, and seems almost entirely 
made up of peninsulas. Nearly half its surface is occupied 
by waters within its limits, rendering it the most accessible 
of all the continents. 

397. Asia has the large peninsulas of Ara'bia, Hindostan', 
and In'do-Chi'na on the south, Core'a and Kamtchat'ka on 
the east, with Chrna and Mantchon'ria projecting forward 
into the ocean. These, however, comprise only one fifth of 
its entire mass. 

398. Africa is the most simple in its outline, having an 
oval form, with no important peninsulas, and nowhere ad- 
mitting the sea. 

399. North America resembles Europe more nearly in its 
extensive and irregular coast line. The Arctic coast is very 
much broken with gulfs and inlets, and the Atlantic coast 
has several important bays and gulfs. 

400. South America is but slightly indented by the sea, 
excepting its south and south-west portion, where the coast 
is broken by sounds and fiords which run far into the land. 

401. Remarkable resemblances and differences in the re- 
liefs of the continents also present themselves to view. All 

Of Europe and Africa. Of Asia and Australia. — 395. Difference in extent of 
coast line. Table. — 396. Describe Europe in its coast line. — 397. Asia. — 
398. Africa.— 399. North America. — 400. South America. — 401. Remark 
on the reliefs of the continents. Line of highest elevation. Relative position 
12 



134 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

the continents rise gradually from the sea shores towards the 
interior, to a line of highest elevation. This line of greatest 
elevation is not placed midway between the sea shores, but 
runs nearer to one than to the other; hence there are two 
slopes, unequal in length and inclination. In the Old World 
the long slopes are towards the north, and short slopes towards 
the south. In the New World the long slopes are towards 
the east, and the short slopes towards the west. 

402. In this line of highest elevation itself we observe 
a gradual descent from the highest or culminating point 
towards the extremities, in two unequal inclinations. In the 
Old World the highest elevation is in the Himalay'a, the 
long descent extending towards the west, and the short 
towards the east. In the New World the highest elevation 
is in the Andes, in Chile, the long descent extending towards 
the north, and the short towards the south. 

403. Thus all the long and gentle slopes descend towards the 
Atlantic and Arctic Oceans ; ayid all the short and rapid slopes 
descend towards the Pacific and Indian Oceans. " In this point 
of view," says Professor Guyot, "these tAVO great oceans 
appear as two basins of different geological character. The 
Pacific seems an immense basin which has sunk down, and 
whose high and ragged edges present on all sides the abrupt 
terminations of the continents. It is on this great line of frac- 
tures, on the borders and all round this ocean, that we behold 
the great majority of the active volcanoes of our globe, arranged 
like an immense burning crovjn. The Atlantic, on the contrary, 
seems a simple depression in the form of a trough, owing,* per- 
haps, to a lateral pressure, and partly to the tilting motion which 
lifted up the lands in the neighborhood of the Pacific. Hence 
Its narrow breadth, the valley form, the absence of numerous 
islands in the interior of its basin, and the descent of all the 
neighboring continents by geutle slopes." 

404. In the distribution of mountains, plateaus, and plains., 
we also perceive remarkable differences, between the two 
great continents. In the Old World mountains and plateaus 
predominate. Central Asia is traversed by four immense 
chains of mountains, supporting vast table lands, which are 
more than 2400 miles long and 1500 miles wide, and from 5000 
to 14,000 feet in elevation. Here are also the loftiest summits 
on the globe. The principal mass of Western Asia is a plateau 

of this line. Long and short slopes of the Old and New World. — 402. Fact 
•observable in this line of highest elevation itself. Where is the culminating 
point in the Old World ? Where in the New ? — 403. Summary view of the 
slopes. Remark on the Pacific Ocean. — ■ 404. Distribution of mountains, 



COMPARATIVE VIEW OP THE CONTINENTS. 135 

from 3000 to 6000 feet in elevation. Africa, south of the 
Saha'ra, is an enormous pile of uplifted lands. Mountains 
and plateaus cover five sevenths of Asia and two thirds of 
Africa. 

405. In the New World the plains predominate, forming 
two thirds of its surface. The highlands, in a narrow band, 
run along the western border of the two Americas, while 
almost the whole east extends in immense plains. If we 
compare the plains of the Mississippi and the Amazon with 
those of Sibe'ria and Saha'ra, we shall perceive a very strik- 
ing contrast. In the former we find a happy climate, a rich 
and fertile soil, a luxuriant vegetation, and inexhaustible 
resources, thus combining all the requisites for the prosperity 
of a country. In the latter we have a frozen waste in Sibe'- 
ria, and a burning sandy desert in Saha'ra, both alike useless 
to man. 

406. A characteristic feature of Western Europe (not in- 
cluding Riis'sia) is that of mountains without plateaus at 
their base. From one end of Europe to the other, whether 
over its central mass or its peninsulas, its surface is modified, 
cut in all directions, by mountain chains intersecting each 
other. In all this part of the continent, the largest plain — that 
of Northern Germany and Poland — is only 600 miles long by 
200 broad; and the plains of France, Hungary, and Lom'- 
bardy are smaller in extent. 

407. The mean height of the continents, or their elevation 
above the level of the sea, depends not so much on the 
mountain chains as on the gentle but extensive and compact 
swellings of the plains, and the development of the table 
lands. Humbdldt has calculated that the Pyr'enees Moun- 
tains would produce upon the whole of Europe, if spread 
over its surface, scarcely the effect of 6 feet elevation, and the 
Alps about 22 feet, while the plateau of Spain would produce 
an effect of 76 feet. If the vast range of the An'des were 
pulverized and spread evenly over the eastern plain of 
South America, it would raise the surface only about 500 
feet. The mean height of Europe is estimated at 670 feet ; 
North America, 750 feet; South America, 1130 feet; and 
Asia, 1150 feet. The mean elevation of the whole land 

plateaus, and plains. Which predominate in the Old World ? Of Western 
Asia. Of Africa south of the desert. Extent of Mountains and plateaus in 
Asia and Africa. — 405. Extent of plains in America. Relative position of 
plains and highlands. Comparison of the plains of the western A\dth those of 
the eastern continent. Characteristics of the former. Of the latter. — 406. 
Characteristic feature of Western Europe. Limited extent of the European 
plains. — 407. On what does the mean height of the continents depend ? Cal- 



\ 



136 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

surface of the earth is 920 feet. The cuhninating point of 
Europe is Mont Blanc, 15,739 feet; of North America, Mount 
St. EUas, 17,860 feet ; of South America, Mount Aconca'gua, 
23,910 feet; of Asia, Mount Kunchingin'ga, 28,178 feet; and 
of Africa, Mount Kilimanjaro, 20,000 feet. 

dilation of Humboldt with regard to the Pyrenees, Alps, and the plateau of 
Spain. Also of the Andes. Estimates of the mean height of the continents, 
and of the whole land surface of the earth. Culminating point of each con- 
tinent. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

GENERAL AND COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE OCEANS. 



" For he hath founded it upon the seas, and established it upon the floods." 
— Ps. xxiv. 2. 

408. The Continents determine the general outlines of 
the great ocean basins. The Pacific and Atlantic almost sm*- 
round the principal masses of land. The Pacific, the Indian, 
and the Atlantic Oceans correspond to the three double con- 
tinents, and separate them from one another. Each of thdm 
is also divided into a northern and southern basin, except the 
Lidian Ocean, which is only a half ocean. These oceans 
have a broad opening at the south, and are narrowed to a 
point at the north, which is the reverse of the continents. 

409. The Pacific is an oval form, wide at the south, the 
sides nearly meeting at the north, being only separated by 
Behr'ing's Strait, which leads into the Arctic. The Indian 
Ocean has the form of a triangle, with the vertex towards 
the north. The Atlantic has the form of a valley, with nearly 
parallel sides. 

410. The oceans differ in the indejitations of their shores. 
The forms msly be classified under three species, viz. : first, 
land-locked seas, being cut off' from the body of the ocean 
by peninsulas and chains of islands ; second, open seas or 
gulfs ; and third, inland seas, being nearly surrounded by 
land in a continuous shore. 

411. In the Pacific we find the land-locked seas. There 
are no less than five along the Asiatic coast — the Sea of 
Kamtchat'ka, closed in by the peninsula of Alias'ka and the 
chain of the Aleu'tian Islands ; the Sea of Okhotsk', enclosed 
by the peninsula of Kamtchat'ka and the Kii'rile Islands ; 
the Sea of Japan', enclosed by the Japan Islands ; the Yel'- 

408. Outlines of the ocean basins. Correspondence between the oceans and 
continents. Reverse contours of the oceans. — 409. Describe the Pacific 
Ocean. The Indian Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean. — 410. Indentations of their 
shores. Three species of indentations. — 411. Prevailing form in the Pacific. 
Sea of Kamtchatka. Sea of Okhotsk. Sea of Japan. Yellow Sea. China 
12 * (137) 



138 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

low Sea, enclosed by the L66-Ch66 and Formo'sa Islands; 
and the Chi'na Sea, enclosed by the Philip'pine Islands and 
Borne 'o. The only indentation on the American shore is the 
Gulf of California. 

412. The Indian Ocean is marked by the open seas — as 
the Sea of Ara'bia and the Bay of Bengal'. There are also 
two midland seas extending into the interior — the Red Sea 
and the Persian Gulf 

413. The Atlantic Ocean is characterized by inland seas, 
advancing far into the lands, and piercing the very heart of 
each continent. On the European side are the Mediterranean 
Sea, comprising three great basins, — the western, the eastern, 
and the Black Sea, besides several others of less extent, — 
and the Bal'tic Sea, with its various branches. On the 
American side are the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson's Bay. 
In addition to these, we have, as instances of land-locked 
seas, the Caribbe'an Sea, enclosed by the Antilles' Islands 
and the peninsula of Yucatan' ; and the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence, enclosed by Newfoundland Island and the peninsula 
of No'va Scotia; also, the Gulf of GuTn'ea and Bay of Bis'- 
cay, as open seas. Thus the Atlantic is the most broken in 
its shores, when compared with the other oceans. 

414. One of the most interesting characteristics of the 
oceans is found in the islands. These have been classed as 
Continental and Pela'gic. The Pacific Ocean exceeds all 
others in the number and extent of its islands, whether con- 
tinental or pela'gic. The East Indian and Austra'lian archi- 
pelagoes are the largest of the continental class existing on 
the surface of the globe ; and the thousands of pela'gic islands 
with which its centre is studded have not a rival. The At- 
lantic possesses, in the West Indies, the British Isles, and 
those of the Mediterranean, continental islands of great im- 
portance ; but its pela'gic islands are comparatively few — 
the Azores', Madei'ra, Cana'ries, Cape Verd, and St. Hele'na 
being the chief The Indian Ocean has the Islands of Mada- 
gas'car and Ceylon' as representatives of the continental, 
while Mauri'tius and Bourbon', with a few others, represent 
the pelii'gic. These various peculiarities of the oceans mod- 
ify, in a greater or less degree, the commercial relations 
among the nations of the world. 

Sea. Gulf of California. — 412. Prevailing form of seas in the Indian Ocean. 
— 413. Prevailing form of seas in the Atlantic Ocean. Those of Europe. Of 
America. Land-locked seas of the Atlantic. Open seas. — 414. Another char- 
acteristic of the oceans. Islands of the Pacific. Islands of the Atlantic. 
Islands of the Indian Ocean. Effects of these peculiarities of the oceans. — 



COMPARATIVE VIEW OP THE OCEANS. 139 

415. Full three fourths of the solid crust of the earth lie buried 
beneath the waters. The ocean basins are not merely continu- 
ations of the general reliefs of the continents. On leaving 
the greater part of the shores, the submarine ground descends 
slowly, in a proportion somewhat similar to the general slopes 
presented by the ground above water on the continents ; but 
at a point more or less distant from the shore the slopes 
abruptly change, the depths suddenly increase, and often 
become ten times as great at a short distance. The greatest 
ascertained depths are found in the middle regions of the At- 
lantic. These depths equal, or surpass by several thousand 
feet, the highest mountain summits on the globe, and are 
found, like them, in the neighborhood of the tropics.^^ 

416. Certain interior seas, like the Mediterranean and Car- 
ibbe'an, are deeper than would be expected from their near- 
ness to the lands, and seem to be sunken basins, the result 
of volcanic agency. The Mediterranean is divided into two 
basins by a shoal that runs from Cape Bon to the Strait of 
Messi'na, on each side of which the water is exceedingly 
deep. A depth of more than 1000 fathoms has been sounded. 
The Caribbe'an Sea, in the deepest parts, is nearly 3 miles. 
The depth of the BaFtic Sea nowhere exceeds 167 fathoms, 
and is generally not more than 40 or 50 fathoms, from which 
cause, together with its freshness and northern latitude, it 
is frozen five months in the year. The depth of the basin 
which holds the waters of the Gulf of Mexico is, in the deep- 
est part, about a mile and a half 

417. " The sea is the proper field for observing the opera- 
tions of the general laws which govern the movements of 
the atmosphere. Observations on land will enable us to dis- 
cover the exceptions ; but from the sea we shall get the rule. 
Each valley, every mountain range, and local district, may be 
said to have its own peculiar system of calms, winds, rains, 
and droughts ; but not so the surface of the broad ocean, for 
over it the agents which are at work are of a uniform char- 
acter." — [Maury.] 

* The Deep-Sea Sounding Apparatus, invented by Lieutenant Brooke, U. S. 
N., is^so contrived that, on touching the bottom of the sea, the shot (usually 
64 pounds weight) detaches itself from the line, but leaves a small iron rod or 
bolt, which (having a cup or hollow in the lower end filled with tallow) will 
bring up a specimen of the bottom. Professor J. W. Bailey, of West Point, 
has examined, by the microscope, a specimen brought up from a depth of 12,000 
feet, and found it made vip entuely of minute shells. 

415. Extent of water surface. Forms of the ocean basins. Region of the 
greatest ascertained depths, compared with mountain summits. Note. 
Brooke's deep-sea sounding apparatus. — 416. Depth of the Mediterranean and 
Caribbean Seas. Of the Baltic. Of the Gulf of Mexico. — 417. The sea the 
field iox observing the general laws of the atmosphere. 



140 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



Exercises for Examination. 

418. What is meant by physical geography ? 

To what system or group of bodies does the earth belong ? 

Mention three different modes by which the rotundity of the earth may 
be proved. 

How is the earth placed in its orbit, and what is the consequence of this 
position ? 

How is the earth or globe divided for the convenience of measurement ? 

From whence is latitude reckoned ? 

AVhat is meant by high and low latitudes ? 

What parallels of latitude divide the earth into zones ? 

For what cause have particular names been given to these zones ? 

Give some particulars about the number of miles contained in degrees 
of longitude, and their difference in different latitudes. 

What is the length of a degree of longitude on the parallel of Boston ? 
Of New York? Of New Orleans ? 

When are places said to be on the same meridian ? 

What is meant when we speak of the sun's being on the meridian ? 



What is the estimated proportion of land and water on the surfece of 
the globe ? 

Under what general heads may the dry land be considered ? 

How is the land arranged in the western and in the eastern continents ? 

Mention the direction of the greatest extension of land in the two con- 
tinents. 

Describe the classes of islands. 

Describe the variations in the reliefs of the land. 

Mention the usual arrangement of mountains. 

Give some account of mountain ranges. 

What direction do they usually appear to take ? 

Name the chief mountain ranges which extend from north to south in 
the new continent. 

Name the principal mountain ranges which extend across the old con- 
tinent. 

How are mountain ranges frequently disposed in peninsulas and islands ? 

Give some particulars about the appearance and form of mountains, and 
about glaciers. 

What are mountain knots ? Examples. 

What are mountain branches and spurs ? 

What are detached or isolated mountains ? 

Where are the loftiest summits usually met with ? 

Give the names and heights of the culminating points of the several 
continents. 

What is meant by plateaus ? 

Mention the most remarkable table land in Europe. 

Mention plateaus in North America, in the Andes, and in Asia. 

Describe plains or lowlands. 



EXERCISES FOR EXAMINATION. 141 

Name the most remarkable in North America. 

Describe the lowlands of South America, and mention by what names 
they are distinguished. 

Mention the plains of Europe. Of Asia. Of Africa. 

What are the various kinds of valleys ? 

Describe each kind. 

What various terms are applied to narrow valleys ? 

By what standard are the reliefs of the land measured ? 

Mention a tract of land below the sea level. 



Under what heads may the waters of the globe be considered ? 
From whence do springs take their rise ? 
How are internal reservoirs supplied with water ? 
What forms the distinction between soft water, hard water, and mineral 
water ? 

What do you know of thermal or hot springs ? 

Whence do rivers derive their suppHes of water ? 

What is meant by the term watershed ? 

What constitutes the basin of a river ? 

On what does the velocity of a river chiefly depend ? 

Describe cataracts, cascades, and rapids. 

What are deltas ? Estuaries ? 

Give some account of the different kinds of lakes. 



. CHAPTER XIV. 

OF AIR AIND WATER AS ENVELOPES OF THE LAND. 

" Thou cover edst the earth with the deep as with a garment : the waters 
stood above the mountains. At thy rebuke they fled." — Ps. civ. 6. 

419. The land, or solid portion of the earth, has two en- 
velopes, by one of which — the sea — it is partially surround- 
ed ; and by the other — the air — it is entirely surrounded. 
The air is an elastic fluid consisting of a mixture of oxygen 
gas and nitrogen or azotic gas, in the proportion of 21 parts 
of oxygen to 79 parts of nitrogen. It also contains a small 
quantity of carbonic acid gas. The constituents of water 
are 8 parts of oxygen to 1 part of hydrogen. These fluids are 
retained on the surface of the globe by the attraction of 
gravitation ; that is, by a power w^hich has been imparted to 
all particles of matter to draw towards them other particles 
of matter. This power of attraction is great in proportion to 
the size of any body, a large mass of matter having a much 
greater attractive power than a small one. As the solid 
land is of much greater size than the particles of air and 
water on its surface, it attracts them, and keeps them in their 
assigned places."^ The sun and moon also possess this power 
of attraction, and, notwithstanding their distance from the 
waters on the earth's surface, they attract and draw them up 
to a certain elevation in the wide, open ocean. 

420. " The atmosphere," in the language of Dr. Biiist, " is 
a spherical shell, which surrounds our planet to a depth that 

* The pressure or weight of the air upon the earth at the level of the sea is 
equal to about 14^ pounds on every square inch. This pressure is balanced by 
a column of mercury 30 inches in height ; but at the elevation of 18,000 feet it 
would be balanced by a column only 15 inches in height ; and so on. It is on 
this principle that the mercurial barometer has been constructed. Since the 
mercury in the barometer is found (with slight local variations) to stand at the 
same point at all places at the level of the sea, and to fall in a regular ratio as 
we ascend above that level, this instrument forms a most useful standard for 
measuring the altitude of any place, either mountain, hill, or plain, to which a 
barometer can be carried. 

419. The envelopes of the land. — 420. Remarks of Dr. Buist on the proper- 

(142) 



AIR AND WATER AS ENVELOPES OF THE LAND. 143 

is unknown to us, by reason of its growing tenuity, as it is 
released from the pressiire of its own superincumbent mass. 
Its upper surface cannot be nearer to us than 50, and can 
scarcely be more remote than 500 miles. It surrounds us on 
all sides, yet we see it not ; it presses on us with a load of 
nearly 15 pounds on every square inch of surface of our- 
bodies, or from 70 to 100 tons on us in all, yet we do not so 
much as feel its weight. When in motion its force- is suf- 
ficient to level the most stately forests and stable buildings 
with the earth, to raise the waters of the ocean into ridges 
like mountains, and dash the strongest ships to pieces like 
toys. It warms and cools by turns the earth and the living 
creatures that inhabit it. It draws up vapors from the sea 
and land, retains them dissolved in itself, or suspended in 
cisterns of clouds, and throws them down again as rain or 
dew when they are required. It bends the rays of the sun 
from their path, to give us the twilight of evening and of 
dawn; it disperses and refracts their various tints to beautify 
the approach and the retreat of the orb of day. But for the 
atmosphere sunshine would burst on us and fail us at once, 
and at once remove us from midnight darkness to the blaze 
of noon. We should have no twilight to soften and beautify 
the landscape, no clouds to shade us from the scorching heat; 
but the bald earth, as it revolved on its axis, would turn its 
tanned and weakened front to the full and unmitigated rays 
of the lord of day. It affords the gas which vivifies and 
warms our frames, and receives into itself that which has 
been polluted by use and is thrown off as noxious. It feeds 
the flame of life exactly as it does that of the fire — -it is in 
both cases consumed, and affords the food of consumption — 
in both cases it becomes combined with charcoal, which re- 
quires it for combustion, and is removed by it when this is 
over." 

421. If the solid part of the earth every where presented 
a uniformly even surface, the waters would completely en- 
velop it, as does the air. But being broken into deep cavi- 
ties and lofty mountains, elevated and depressed plateaus 
and plains, the waters are made to occupy the lowest parts, 
covering about three fourths of the whole surface. Its val- 
leys, in some parts, sink beyond the reach of the ordinary 
sounding line, and its mountains often rise above the waters 
in chains or groups of islands. 

ties and uses of the atmosphere. — 42L Supposition relating to the water. 
The bed of the ocean. — 422. Conjecture Avith reg.ird to the bottom of the sea. 



144 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GJEOGRAPHY. 

422. The bottom of the sea is probably much more rugged 
and abrupt than the surface of the dry land. Reasons why 
such should be the case are obvious. On the land the winds, 
the rains, and rivers are always abrading, drifting, and wash- 
ing down the high places and filling up the low; these agents 
are but feebly, or not at all, felt at the bottom of the sea. On 
the dry land frosts and the force of gravity are great levellers; 
at the bottom of the sea no frosts are felt, and the difference 
of the force of gravity operating upon a rock at the bottom 
of the sea and at the top of a mountain is as the difference in 
Aveight between air and water. 

423. These two envelopes of air and water constitute a 
natural whole, on which depends the difference of climate 
over the earth's surface, according to the relative extent of 
the fluid and solid parts, the form and aspect of the land, and 
the direction and elevation of the mountain chains. 

424. Though the term climate has special reference to the 
character of the atmosphere, yet this is itself dependent on 
the constant influences of the ocean and the land : the ocean 
being every where agitated by currents of opposite tempera- 
ture, and the land being greatly varied in form, elevation, 
color, and fertility. The temperature, the winds, and the rain 
are the three principal elements of climate. If we know the 
amount and distribution of these throughout the year, in any 
country, we may know what the climate is. 

Reasons. — 423. What do the air and water constitute ? — 424. Special refer- 
ence of the term " climate." The atmosphere dependent on what influences. 
Principal elements of climate. 



CHAPTER XV. 

HEAT, ELECTRICITY, AND MAGNETISM. 

*' In the heavens hath he set a tabernacle for the sun ; his going forth is 
from the end of the heaven, and his circuit unto the ends of it : and there is 
nothing hid from the heat thereof." — Ps. xix. 4-6. 

§ 1. Of Heat. 

425. The sun is the grand agent in diffusing light and 
heat over the surface of the globe. Through the admirable 
and beneficent adaptation of means to ends, in which the 
earth performs its annual journey round the sun, and its 
daily motion about its axis, all parts of its surface are suc- 
ces.sively exposed to the sun's rays ; and owing to the in- 
clined position of the earth in its orbit, the northern and 
southern hemispheres are alternately brought more or less 
directly under solar influence. 

426. All bodies absorb and radiate heat ; that is, they re- 
ceive it and part with it. A rough or dark surface absorbs 
heat more freely than a smooth or light one. Under the 
same circumstances, bodies "which soon become heated soon 
become cool ; and those whicli are slow in heating are also 
slow in cooling. Grass, wood, and the leaves of plants radi- 
ate heat very freely, while polished metals, smooth pebbles, 
and woollens part with it slowly. 

427. The direct eiFect of heat on all bodies is to expand 
them. Solids are increased in their dimensions, or converted 
into liquid or gaseous forms. Cold, which is a privation of 
heat, condenses and contracts the volume of nearly every 
thing. Gases and liquids become condensed or solid, and 
solids are rendered more compact To this, however, there 
is an important exception. Water, at 42° of temperature, 
begins to expand, and, on becoming solid, exerts great force. 

425. The sun. Results of the revolution and rotation of the earth. — 426. 
Of bodies in regard to heat. Rough and smooth sm-faces. Law of radiation. 
13 (145) 



146 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

428. Heat converts water into vapor and steam, and both 
water and air are rendered lighter and more rare, and will 
rise through the denser portions above them. During the 
process of evaporation a certain quantity of heat is absorbed, 
becoming latent, that is, not perceptible to our senses. The 
more rapid the evaporation, the more intense is the cold 
produced. Evaporation goes on more freely in the wind 
than in still air. The sudden condensation of air, either by 
cooling or by compression, causes a quantity of latent heat 
to be set free, that is, to become sensible to the feelings, at 
the same time the vapor it may have contained is deposited 
in rain or dewdrops. 

429. The earth, as a whole, is under the same laws of 
heat. Although part of the heat received from the sun in 
summer is radiated into the atmosphere, by far the greater 
part is absorbed into the earth, tempering the severity of the 
winter's cold. 

430. The heating power of the sun's rays depends upon 
the manner in which they fall upon the earth. The higher 
the sun ascends above the horizon, the more directly do his 
rays fall, and their heating power is rapidly increased as 
they approach a perpendi&ular. The earth absorbs a far 
greater quantity of heat when it falls vertically than when 
it comes in an oblique direction ; hence at the equator the 
temperature is highest. 

431. Many causes, however, disturb this law, even be- 
tween the tropics. The unequal distribution of land and 
water, the height above the sea, the nature of the soil, the 
position of the land surface with regard to the sun's rays, 
and the presence or absence of vegetation — all these modify 
the temperature more or less. 

432. The atmosphere rests partly on the solid earth, whose 
mountain chains and elevated plateaus rise above its densest 
portions ; and partly on the sea, whose surface forms a 
moving base, on which rest the lower and more humid por- 
tions of the air. 

433. The air, when at rest, is a very bad conductor of 
heat, and is chiefly warmed by the heat which is radiated 
from the soil, and not by the passage of the sun's rays 

— 427. Direct effect of heat on bodies. Of cold. Exception. — 428. Effects 
of heat upon water and air. Of evaporation. Effects resulting from a sudden 
condensation of air. — 429. The laws of heat with regard to the earth. — 43 J. On 
what does the power of the sun's rays depend ? Temperature. Where great- 
est, and why? — 431. Causes which disturb this law. — 432. On what does 
the atmosphere rest ? — 433. The air. How warmed ? By what is radiation 



HEAT, ELECTRICITY, AND MAGNETISM. 14T 

through it. The radiation is most free when the sky is 
clear ; clouds and even slight mists diminish the radiation, by 
intercepting its upward progress. Water has a great capa- 
city for heat, but it is a bad conductor. It is warmed very 
slowly by the sun's rays. The temperature of the ocean, 
therefore, is remarkably uniform, and less liable to sudden 
changes than the atmosphere. 



Problems for Solution. 

434. a. Which is best for keeping coffee hot upon the 
breakfast table, an urn of highly polished metal, or one of 
dark, rough material ? Why ? 

b. With three glass cups I tried the following experiments. 
Into one I poured some boiling water, and the cup was im- 
mediately broken. Another I filled with cold water, and 
put it out of doors in a cold night; and on going for it in the 
morning, the water was solid and the glass was broken. A 
third cup I carried into a warm room, and filled it with ice- 
water ; soon after which I saw water standing like perspira- 
tion on the outside of the cup. Now, how will you account 
for these different results ? 

c. I once saw a man preparing to ascend in a balloon 
from Boston Common, in the month of July. Among the 
various articles which he placed in his car were two over- 
coats, a pair of fur gloves, and a fur cap. What could he 
want of such things in midsummer in Boston ? 

d. If you wet your finger, and hold it up in the air, what 
sensation do you feel ? Why ? 

e. Why are wet clothes dried sooner in the open air than 
in a confined room ? 

f. Many ponds are without water in the summer. Why 
is this ? 

g. Farmers have learned that a cold, wet piece of land 
becomes warmer and more productive by draining it. Why 
does draining land promote warmth ? 

h. Hedges and belts of trees are said to promote warmth, 
while forests produce cold. How will you account for this ? 

i. Why does dew fall more abundantly on cultivated soils 
than on barren lands and rocks ? 

promoted or retarded ? Of water in relation to heat. Temperature of the ocean. 



148 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 2. Electricity. 

435. Of Electricity in itself we know nothing more than 
that it is a mighty, imponderable agent, called, simply for con- 
venience, a fluid. It pervades the earth, the air, and all sub- 
stances, unperceived, when in a latent state, but exhibiting 
forces capable of producing the most sudden, violent, and 
irresistible eifects when roused from its latent or neutral 
condition. 

436. There are two states or kinds of electricity ; one is 
called vitreous, or positive, the other resinous, or negative. 
Two bodies, each charged with different kinds of electricity, 
mutually attract each other, the two electricities coalescing 
with great rapidity, and causing a vivid light, called 'he 
electric spark, and accompanied by an explosion, upon which 
the neutral condition is restored. 

437. The electricity of the atmosphere arises from evapo- 
ration and the chemical changes that are perpetually going 
forward on the globe. The ocean is one of the greatest 
sources of electricity in the atmosphere ; combustion io 
another ; and a large portion arises from vegetation. The air, 
when undisturbed by clouds, is almost always charged with 
positive electricity ; the surface of the earth is always 
charged with negative electricity. 

438. Clouds are very differently charged with electricity. 
Gray clouds have negative — red, white, and orange clouds 
positive. When clouds differently charged meet, an explo- 
sion takes place. When the sky is clear, and the air calm 
and warm, a succession of small, white, fleecy clouds, rising 
rapidly above the horizon, and flying swiftly in the very high 
regions of the atmosphere, is a certain presage of a thunder 
storm. 

439. The velocity of lightning far surpasses the velocity 
of light. Its inconceivable velocity is beautifully exempli- 
fied in the electric telegraph. The rolling noise of thunder 
is probably owing to the difference between the velocity of 
lightning and that of sound. In passing to the earth, light- 
ning follows the best conductors — metals by preference; then 
moist bodies — which is the reason why men and animals 
are so often struck with it. 

— 43f5. Our knowledge of electricity. States and effects. — 436. Two kinds. 
Bodies differently charged. — 437. Sources of the atmospheric electricity. — 
4^8. Clouds differently charged. — 439. Velocity of lightning. Thunder, what ? 



HEAT, ELECTRICITY, AND MAGNETISM. 149 

440. Electricity is perpetually eiFecting great changes in 
the earth's crust ; not so much in its loud and fearful displays, 
which are evident to us, as in its unseen, quiet operations. 
To this powerful agent may be attributed the formation of 
the gems and crystals, which excite our admiration from their 
brilliancy and richness of color ; and also, in all probability, 
many of the metallic deposits, which occur in the crevices 
and fissures of rocks. 



§ 3. Magnetism. 

441. Magnetism is one of those unseen, imponderable 
agents, which, like heat and electricity, are known only by 
their effects. Terrestrial magnetism, which pervades thel 
whole earth, is very complicated. It varies both with regard 
to space and time, and probably depends upon the heat of 
the sun, upon his motion in the ecliptic which produces 
changes of temperature, upon galvanic currents circulating 
through the surface of the globe, and possibly upon the 
earth's rotary motion. 

442. The distribution of terrestrial magnetism is deter- 
mined by the declination needle, or mariner's compass, and 
the dipping needle. They consist of magnetized needles, or 
bars of steel, so suspended that the declination needle revolves 
in a horizontal direction, and the dipping needle moves in a 
plane perpendicular to the horizon. The north end of the 
declination needle or magnet points to the north, and the 
south end to the south, and it only remains at rest when in 
that position. The direction of the needle determines the 
magnetic meridian of the place of observation. 

443. The magnetical meridians coincide with the geograph- 
ical meridians in some places, and in these the magnet points 
to the true north and south, that is, to the poles of the earth's 
rotation. But if it is carried successively to different longi- 
tudes, it will deviate sometimes to the east, sometimes to the 
west of the true north. 

444. The north end of the dipping needle bends or dips 
below the horizon in the northern hemisphere, and the south 
end bends or dips beneath it in the southern hemisphere, 
and between the two there is a line, which encircles the 

Good conductors. — 440. Effects of electricity. — 441. Magnetism, how known ? 
Terrestrial maj^netism. Dependent on what? — 442. Its distribution, how 
ascertained ? Describe the needles. What does the needle determine ? — 443. 
Of magnetic and geographical meridians. Deviations. — 444. The dipping 
13* 



150 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

whole earth, where the dipping needle remains horizontal. 
That line, which is the magnetic equator, or line of no dip, 
crosses the terrestrial equator in several places, extending 
alternately on each side, but never deviating more than 12 
degrees from it. The deviation is greater in that part of the 
Pacific where there are most islands, and it is greatest both 
to the south and north in traversing the continents of Africa 
and America. Hence it appears that the configuration of the 
land and water has an influence on terrestrial magnetism. 

445. North and south of the magnetic equator the needle 
dips more and more, till at last it becomes perpendicular to 
the horizon in two points, known as the north and south 
magnetic poles, which are quite distinct from the poles of 
the earth's rotation. One is in 70° N. lat. and 97° W. Ion. ; 
the other is in 75° 5' S. lat. and 154° 8' E. Ion. . 

needle. Magnetic equator. Deviations. Influence of land on magnetism, 
445. — The magnetic poles. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

OF CLIMATE. 

" While the earth remaineth, seed time and harvest, and cold and hoat, and 
fiuminer and winter, and day and night, shall not cease. " — Gen. \m. 22. 

446. The spherical form of the earth causes an unequal 
distribution of the sun's rays upon its surface, giving us the 
solar climates, or great zones of temperature. They are 
severally designated as the Torrid, the Temperate, and the 
Frigid Zones. These solar climates, however, are greatly 
modified by the geographical forms of the surface, and by the 
distribution and relative situation of the continents and seas. 

447. Lands which lie remote from the influence of the 
ocean have a climate characterized by the extremes of heat 
and cold, by more violent changes, and a drier atmosphere. 
The sea and land, when near each other, and receiving the 
same quantity of heat from the sun, are differently affected 
in temperature. The sea is colder than the land during the 
day, and warmer during the night. So, also, in summer, the 
sea is cooler than the land, and in winter it is warmer. Thus 
the sea preserves a medium temperature, while the land is 
affected by extremes. 

448. The temperature diminishes as we ascend from the 
ocean level, because the upper portions of the atmosphere are 
more and more rare, and are less affected by the radiated heat 
of the earth. A height of about 800 feet produces a change 
of 2° of temperature, and a height of 15,000 feet produces 
the same effect as a distance of 5000 miles from the equator. 

449. There is no snow between the tropics, except on the 
tops of lofty mountains. The line of perpetual snow, m these 
hot regions, varies from 16,000 to 17,000 feet above the level 
of the sea. From these regions, north and south, it descends, 
till it grazes the earth near the polar circles. It will be per- 

446. Effect of the earth's form upon the distribution of the sun's rays. By 
what are the solar climates modified ? — 447. Lands remote from the influence of 
the ocean. Different effects on sea and land in proximity. — 448. Change of 
temperatvire in ascending from the ocean level. — 449. Of snow between the 

(151) 



152 



ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



ceived, however, by the annexed diagram, that the snow Ime is 
higher at the distance of 20° from the equator than at the 
equator itself This is explained by the circumstance that the 
sun at the equator is never more than 12 hours above the hori- 
zon, whereas near the tropics the longest days are thirteen 
and a half hours in length ; and as the sun at that period of the 
year is vertical, or nearly so, in that portion of the globe, the 
summer heat, on which the line of perpetual snow depends, 
is greater than immediately under the equator. 



Height. 
17,000 




Height of Snow Line in different Latitudes in the Northern 
Hemisphere. 



OF CLIMATE. 153 

450. The limit of perpetual snow is varied, however, by 
circumstances. On the northern slope of the Himalay'a 
Mountains the snow line is 3640 feet higher than it is on the 
southern slope, owing to the intense summer heats of the 
central table lands. The surface of these table lands is about 
15,000 feet above the level of the sea, whilst on the southern 
side the mountains rise directly to a great elevation, from a 
fiat country that is scarcely a thousand feet above the sea, 
and covered with a close jungle — a surface which is the least 
favorable for radiating heat. 

451. On observing the temperature of a place, as registered 
by the thermometer, it is found to be constantly fluctuating 
through a certain range, above and below a standard mean. 
Temperature in equatorial regions is distributed tolerably 
equally over the whole year, owing to the days and nights 
being equal ; but in mean and high latitudes, where the length 
of the day varies greatly, it takes a wide range above and 
below the annual mean. But in general the mean annual 
temperatures vary very little. The Warmth Equator, or line 
of the highest mean annual temperature, is not coincident 
with the geographical equator, but lies almost wholly to the 
north of it ; occurring only to the south in the space between 
150° W. Ion. in the Pacific Ocean and the Sun'da Isles. 
Passing from the tropics towards the north pole, the temper- 
ature declines gradually, but much more rapidly in America 
and Eastern Asia than in Europe. Lines connecting all 
points having the same mean annual temperature, or nearly, 
are termed isother'mal, signifying equal heat. Near the 
equator, the isother'mals exhibit no great divergence from the 
parallels of latitude ; but as we go farther north their inflec- 
tions become remarkable, ranging through 20° and 25° of 
latitude, 

452. In accurately defining the zones of climate, the tropics 
and polar circles are practically useless. Attending only to 
the isotherm, we may discriminate Jive climatic zones — the 
hot, warm, temperate, cold, and frigid. 

— The Hot Zone is bounded on each side of the warmth 
equator by the isotherm of 80°. It includes the northern 
extremity of Australia, the islands and peninsulas of Southern 
Asia, the middle regions of Africa, the northern portion of 

tropics. Height of snow line. — 450. Variation in snow line. Himalaya Moun- 
tains. — 451. Observation of the temperature of places. The temperature of 
equatorial regions. Of mean and high latitudes. Warmth equator. Of heat 
in receding from the tropics. Isothermal lines. Range in high latitudes, — 
452. Comparison of the isotherms with the tropic and polar circles. The hot 



1*^ ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Brazil', Guia'na, Venezuela, New Grena'da, Guatema'la, with 
Jamai'ca and a part of the West Indian groups. In this region, 
at the sea level, frost and snow are unknown. Vegetation 
is luxuriant and perennial in the w^ell-watered districts, but 
burning deserts of sand and flint prevail. 

— The Warm Zone lies between the isotherms of 80° and 
70°, and includes, in the northern hemisphere, Mexico, Cuba, 
Florida, North-western and Northern Africa, (excepting a por- 
tion of the Barbary States,) Northern Arabia, almost the whole 
of Persia, Afghanistan', Beloochistan', Northern India, Bir'man 
Empire, Siam', Cochin- Chi'na, south of China Proper, and the 
greater part of the Philip'pine Islands. The characteristics 
of this region are much the same as those of the preceding. 

453. The Temperate Zone lies between the isotherms 
of 70° and 30°, and includes a large section of North America 
and Central Asia, Iceland, almost the whole of Europe, and 
a small strip of Northern Africa. In its southern portion we 
have the northern limit of the region of palms, and the prin- 
cipal district of the cultivation of the vine. Its northern 
boundary in Europe nearly corresponds with the most northern 
limit of barley and rye, and the appearance of trees. In this 
zone man has in all ages attained the highest development 
of his powers, and the most civilized nations have been 
located in it. 

454. The Cold Zone lies between the isotherms of 30° 
and 10°, and includes the countries around Hudson's Bay, 
most of Labrador', Greenland, Spitzber'gen, Nova Zem'bla, 
part of Lapland, part of North Biis'sia, and the greater portion 
of Siberia. Through a great part of this region, the soil at a 
varying depth remains permanently frozen throughout the 
year ; but to a certain varymg extent the surface is thawed 
by the powerful temperature of the short Siberia^ summer, 
so that wheat, barley, and rye ripen. 

455. The Frigid Zone is bounded by the isotherm of 10°. 
It includes the countries in America to the north of Hudson's 
Bay, and a section of Northern Asia, between the Gulf of 
Obi, in about 80° E. Ion., and the meridian of 160°, and between 
the mean latitude of 66° and the Arctic Ocean. The effect 
of cold upon vegetation is most apparent in this zone. The 
larch and birch pass within its limits, but they are stunted in 
form, and soon disappear. 

456. A comparison of the climate of places situated in the 

zone. Characters. The warm zone. Characters. — 453. Temperate zone. 
Characters. — 454. The cold zone. Characters. — 455. Frigid zone. Characters. — 
456. Means for ascertaining the difference between a land and sea climate. 



Faroe Islands, 


38.5 


54.0 


15.5 


St. Petersbiirg, 


16.3 


60.8 


44.5 


Yakootsk', 


— 38.0 


63.0 


101.0 


Lands End, 


44.6 


60.4 


15.8 


Barnaul', Sib., 


6.6 


61.9 


55.3 


Madeira Islands, 


61.3 


70.0 


8.7 


Cai'ro, Egypt, 


58.5 


84.6 


26.1 


Bermudas Islands, 


59.2 


75.2 


16.0 


Natch'ez, 


50.0 


77.7 


27.7 



OF CLIMATE. 155 

interior of continents, with that of isfands under the influ- 
ence of the ocean, in the same latitudes, will afford the best 
means for ascertaining the difference of a land and sea 
climate. 

Table of Mean Temperature. 

Lat. N. Places. Winter. Summer. Difference. 

60° to 62°. 

50° to 52°. 
30° to 32°. 
31° to 32°. 

457. The average temperature of Boston, during a period 
of twenty-six years, has been estimated at 49° Fahr'enheit. 
That of Quebec during a series of years has been computed 
at 40°; Montreal', 44°; New York, 52°; Philadelphia, 52°; 
and Bal'tiraore, 54°. That of Nor'folk is as high as 59° ; 
Charleston, 66°; Savannah, 67°; and New Orleans, 67°. 
Key West, Florida, is 77|°, and is probably the warmest 
place in the United States ; and San Die'go ranks next, with 
a temperature of 72°. The climate in Siin Francis'co is a 
little warmer than that of Baltimore, being 56°. 

458. Cata'nia, in Si'cily, is one of the warmest places in 
Europe; and, although five degrees north of Savannah, is 
equal to it in warmth and pleasantness of climate. At Paris 
the temperature is about the same as that of New York, 
although it is situated five degrees farther northward. Na'ples 
and Rome are like Philadelphia and Cincinna'ti. London, 
which is five degrees farther north than Bos'ton, experiences 
the same degrees of heat and cold. St. Petersburg has the 
same average temperature as Montreal ; and Constantinople 
is the same as Norfolk. Jerusalem, in Palestine, and Nan- 
gasa'ki, in Japan, both occupy an intermediate rank between 
Norfolk and Charleston. 

459. An insular or sea climate is uniform and moist ; the 
sky is often cloudy and rainy in high latitudes. A land' cli- 
mate is excessive, with violent changes, and dry ; the sky is 
usually clear. 

460. All the waters of the continents are derived from the 

Table. — 457. Average of temperature in different places in the United States. 
— 458. Comparison between American and European cities. — 4o9. Peculiarity 
of a sea climate. — 46U. Source of the contiuental waters. Changes wrought 



156 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

sea. The sun, by his "heating rays, causes the vapor to rise 
from their vast expanse of surface, ascending into the atmos- 
phere, fining it with moisture. The colder air of the upper 
regions condenses the vapor, so that it becomes visible in 
the form of clouds and fogs, which, being borne along by the 
winds, pass over the lands, and fall in abundant rains. That 
which is not consumed in the nourishment of plants and 
animals, nor carried off into the atmosphere by evaporation, 
is returned to the ocean by springs and rivers. 

461. Moisture, fertility, and vegetation depend upon the 
vapors which are thus carried by the winds from the 
ocean to the lands. The larger the tracts of land, and the 
more closely they are clustered together, the more difficult 
it is to receive these beneficial influences of the ocean. 
Hence we perceive the variety of circumstances on which 
climate is made to depend. 

462. The causes which produce diversity of climate being 
so various, and great difference of temperature being found 
to prevail in similar parallels of latitude, no rule can be laid 
down relative to the climates on the earth's surface. It may, 
however, be considered that, generally- speaking, the eastern 
districts of both the Old and New Continents possess more 
excessive climates than the western districts of either ; that 
the climate in the interior of continents is most excessive ; 
and that islands have a more equable, or less variable tem- 
perature than large masses of land. 

upon the vapor by the atmosphere. — 461. For what influences are the conti- 
nents dependent on the oceans ? Circumstances limiting the extent of these 
influences. — 462. Summary remarks on climate. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

or WINDS. 

" The wind goeth toward the south, and turneth about unto the north ; it 
whirleth about continually: and the wind returneth again according to his 
circuits." — Eccl. i. 6. 

§ 1. General System of Atmospheric Circulation. 

463. The winds that blow in our temperate regions are 
very variable. They suddenly change their direction, their 
force, and their temperature, without apparent cause; but 
in the equatorial regions, the winds are either constant or 
periodical. In the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans we find a 
gentle and regular wind blowing from east to west, with 
great constancy, from one end of the year to the other. In 
the Indian Ocean the winds blow five months from the N. 
E., and five months from the S. W., taking about a month 
for them to change and become settled. 

464. There is a general system of atmospheric circulation, 
or interchange of air over the earth, chiefly caused by the 
light and heat of the sun, for the purpose of preserving a 
proper mixture and purity of the air in both hemispheres. 
Magnetism and electricity are also considered among the 
forces concerned in the circulation of the air. 

465. At the point of greatest heat the air expands, thereby 
becoming lighter; and, being pressed by the surrounding 
air, which is colder and heavier, it ascends. Two currents 
are thus established, one ascending, creating a void which 
is immediately filled by the cold lateral current, pushing in 
from aU sides. An island in the midst of the ocean will 
furnish an example. Land is heated more rapidly than the 
sea; and, as the sun rises above the horizon, the island 

463. Winds of temperate regions. Of equatorial. Pacific and Atlantic between 

the topics. Alternate winds in the Indian Ocean. — 464, General system of 

atmospheric circulation. — 465. Effect upon the air at the point of greatest 

heat. Currents established. Example afforded by an island in the ocean. 

14 (157) 



158 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

becomes warmer than the ench'chng sea. The air resting on 
the land receives the heat, and ascends, the cooler sea air 
rushing in as a sea breeze. During the night it is the re- 
verse. The island, losing its heat by radiation, cools sooner 
than the sea. Its atmosphere, having become heavier, flows 
into that of the sea as a land breeze, which continues till 
the temperature and density of the two atmospheres become 
equal. 

466. The same process is going on between an entire con- 
tinent and the ocean, from one season to another, between 
the tropical, temperate, and polar regions, in a permanent 
manner. The temperature between the tropics is nearly 
uniform, and is constantly higher than that of the polar re- 
gions ; and to these differences of temperature particular 
currents of air correspond. — Reynark. The direction of a 
wind is designated by the point of the compass from whence 
it comes, which is also called the windward ; and the point 
towards which the wind is blowing is called the leeward. 

467. The rotation of the earth on its axis from west to 
east, together with the difference of motion between the 
poles and the equator, exerts an influence upon the direction 
of these currents, causing them to deviate more and more 
from their original direction. The current from the N. is 
changed into a current from the N. E., and that from the S. 
into a current from the S, E. These t^wo currents meet near 
the equator, producing the N. E. and S. E. trade winds. 

468. The general system of atmospheric circulation is thus 
described in the Bible : " The wind goeth toward the south, 
and turneth about unto the north ; it whhleth about continu- 
ally, and the wind returneth again to his circuits." — Eccl. 
i. 6. Tracing the general course of the "wind in his ch- 
cuits," we find five zones of rest, in which calms and light 
airs are the prevalent condition of the atmosphere. The 
central one is near the equator, where the N. E. and S. E. 
trade winds meet, forming what is called the belt of equa- 
torial calms. 

469. Two other belts lie between those parallels where 
the " wind that goeth towards the south " meets that which 
"■ turneth about unto the north." They are the calms of 
Cancer and Capricorn. 

Sea breeze. Land breeze. — 466. Application of this process to an entire con- 
tinent. Temperature of the tropics. Mode of designating the direction of the 
winds. — 467. Influences acting upon these currents of air. Resulting -vvinds. 
Place of their meeting. — 468. Bible description of atmospheric circulation. 
Zones of rest. Belt of equatorial calms. — 469. Calms of Cancer and Capri- 



OF WINDS. 



1G9 



DIAGRAM OF THE WINDS. 




EXPLANATION. 



S. W -P. "W. — South-West Passage Winds. 
N. E.-T. W. — North-East Trade Winds 
S. E.-T. W. — South-East Trade Winds. 
N. W.-P. W. — North- West Passage Winds. 



16D ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

470. The Cancer belt of calms in the Atlantic is known to 
American seamen as the " Horse Latitudes," from the cir- 
cumstance that the vessels formerly engaged in carrying 
horses from New England to the West Indies found it so 
difficult to cross this belt. They would often be detained in 
the calms for many days, during which time the large cargo 
of horses would exhaust the stock of water, become frantic 
with thirst, and; to save a part, the rest would have to be 
thrown overboard. 

471. The surface winds from the calms of Cancer ap- 
proach the north pole by a series of spirals from the S. W., 
thereby creating a whirl in which the ascending column of 
air revolves from right to left, or against the hands of a 
watch. At tlie south pole the winds come from the N. W., 
and consequently they revolve about it with the hands of a 
watch. These spirals are the polar calms. 

472. The N. E. and S. E. trades are surface w^inds. In 
the equatorial calms they have run their course on the sur- 
face, and are going up to blow as upper currents. The N. E. 
trade winds keep on towards the south as an upper current, 
and the S. E. trade winds make their way north. On reach- 
ing the region of the tropics they descend again to the sur- 
face, each holding its onward course : in these we have the 
prevailing S. W. passage winds of the north, and N. W. pas- 
sage winds of the south. 

473. " It may now be regarded as an established fact that 
there is a perpetual upper current of air from South America 
^vhich falls at the belt of Cancer to North Africa — a fact 
^lich is proved by an examination of specimens of the " red 
fog," or " sea dust," from the region of the Cape de Verdes, 
and from Mal'ta, Gen'oa, Ly'ons, and the Tyr'ol. This dust 
is found to consist of infusoria and organisms whose habitat 
[or native place] is not Africa, but South America, and in the 
region of the S. E. trade wmds of South America." — [Lieut. 
Maury, U. S. N.] 



Explanation of the Chart of the Winds. 

The wind represented by the arrows A 1 2 3, in the southern hemisphere, as 
S. E. trades and monsoons, is supposed, when it meets the N. E. trades, to rise 

corn. — 470. The "horse latitudes."— 471. Polar cahns. — 472. N. E. and S. 
E. trade winds. The S. W. and N. "W. passage winds. — 473. Proof of the 



OP WINDS. 161 

up and flow to the northward and eastward as an upper current, until it passes 
the N. E. trade wind region. It then appears on the surface as the prevailing 
S. W. wind of the extra tropical regions of the northern hemisphere, as noted 
by the arrows A 1 2 3, to the north of the Tropic of Cancer. 

The arrows at A 1, in the South Pacific, show where the vapor which feeds 
the Mississippi with rains is supposed to be taken up ; and those of A 1, in 
North America, show where it is precipitated. 

The arrows at C, in the North Pacific, show where the vapors that supply 
Chile and Western Patagonia are supposed to be taken up. 

The arrows at A 2, in the northern hemisphere, represent the supposed route 
of the air in that region, which has passed over South America, at A 2, as the 
S. E. trades and the monsoons ; and the arrows A 3, in the same region, are 
intended to indicate the route of the S. E. trades and monsoons of Africa. 



474. The course of the winds as above described is repre- 
sented in the diagram (page 159) by the arrows along the 
wavy curves A, B, C, D, to the south pole, thence up with 
the arrow at P, and around with the hands of a watch, and 
back as indicated by the arrows along E, F, G, and H. 

475. The belt of equatorial calms has a mean average 
breadth of about six degrees of latitude. It always separates 
the two trade wind zones, and travels np and down with 
them during the year, coming farther north in the summer, 
where it tarries several months, and then returns. This belt 
moves over more than twice its breadth, and the entire mo- 
tion from south to north is accomplished generally in two 
months. May and June. The whole system of zones, viz., 
of the trade winds, calms, and passage winds, follow the sun. 

.476. " Li the region of equatorial calms and rains there is 
a ring of cloud that encircles the earth, which, by travelling 
with the calm belt up q,nd down the earth, shifts the surface 
from which the heating rays of the sun are excluded. This 
cloud ring is stretched around our earth to regulate the quan- 
tity of precipitation in the rain belt beneath it ; to preserve 
the due quantity of heat on the face of the earth ; to adjust 
the winds ; and send out for distribution to the four corners 
vapors in proper quantities to make up to each river basm, 
climate, and season its due share of sunshine, cloud, and 
moisture. The vapors which form this cloud ring come from 
the trade wind regions ; under the cloud ring they rise up ; 
as they rise up they expand ; and as they expand they grow 

origin and course of the S. W. passage winds. — 474. Reference to the dia- 
gram of the winds. — 475. Belt of equatorial calms. Breadth. Movement. 
Time. — 476. The " cloud ring" Its place. Purpose. Soui-ces of vapor 
14* 



162 ELEMENTS OP PPIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

cool, and rain follows. By the rainy seasons of the torrid 
zone, we can trace this cloud-ring stretched like a girdle 
round about the earth." — [Maury.] 



§ 2. Trade Winds and Monsoons. 

477. The continents impede the progress of the trade 
winds, dividing the equatorial current into three regions. 
The trade winds of the Pacific are arrested by Asia and 
Australia ; those of the Indian Ocean by Africa ; and those 
of the Atlantic by America. 

478. The Pacific trades begin at a certain distance from 
the W. coast of America, and blow almost without interrup- 
tion as far as the coasts of Asia and Australia. The N. E. 
current is regular between 2° and 25° N. lat, and the S. 
E. current between 2° and 21° S. lat. The equatorial 
calms occupy the space between 2° N. and 2° S. of the 
equator. The air here is in an uncertain state of rest, which 
the least accident may violently disturb. A dead calm is 
often succeeded by sudden tempests, violent squalls, and 
tornadoes. Thunder and rain occur almost daily. 

479. The Atlantic trades, on account of the nearer position 
of the continents, and the direction of the coasts, are farther 
north than the Pacific trades. The northern limit of the N. 
E. current is about 28° or 30° N. lat., and the southern limit 
of the same is about 8° N. lat. The belt of calms in the 
Atlantic occupies a space wholly north of the equator, so 
that the northern edge of the S, E. current is in the northern 
hemisphere. 

480. Monsoons. — When a trade wind is turned back or 
diverted by overhetited districts from its regular course at 
stated seasons of the year, it is regarded as a monsoon. 
Thus the African monsoons of the Atlantic, the monsoons of 
the Gulf of Mexico, and the Central American monsoons of 
the Pacific, are, for the most part, formed of the N. E. trade 
winds, which are turned back to restore the equilibrium 
which the overheated plains of Africa, Utah, Texas, and 
New Mexico have disturbed. 

481. When the monsoons prevail for five months at a time, 
(for it takes about a month for them to change and become 

Direction. — 477- Influence of the continents upon the trade winds. — 478. 
Trade winds of the Pacific. Equatorial calms. -^ 479. Trade winds of the At- 
lantic. Belt of calms. — 480. What are monsoons ? African monsoons. Gulf 
of Mexico and Central American, how formed ? — 481. South-west monsoons of 



OP WINDS. 163 

settled,) then both they and the trade winds, of which they 
are formed, are called monsoons. The S. W. and N. E. 
monsoons of the Indian Ocean aJSbrd an example of this 
kind. The S. W. monsoons of the Indian Ocean blow from 
May to September inclusive. They are caused by the in- 
tense heat which the rays of a cloudless sun produce during 
the summer time upon the Desert of Co'bi and the burning 
plains of Central Asia. When the sun is north of the equa- 
tor, the force of his rays, beating down upon these wide and 
thirsty plains, causes the air to expand and ascend. There 
is, consequently, a rush of air, especially from towards the 
equator, to restore the equilibrium ; and in this case the 
force which tends to draw the N. E. trade winds back be- 
comes greater than the force which is acting to drive them 
forward. 

482. When it is summer time in Africa south of the equa- 
tor, the winds are blowing from the N. E., in obedience 
to the trade wind force, which prevails from November to 
March inclusive ; hence we have the N. E. monsoons. The 
monsoon season may always be known by referring to the 
cause which produces these winds. Thus, by recollecting 
where the dry and overheated plains are, we know at once 
that these winds are rushing with greatest force towards 
these plains at the time of their hottest season of the 
year, 

483. In the southern part of the Indian Ocean, which is 
not so much under the influence of the lands, the S. E. trade 
winds blow very regularly through the whole year. The 
seas of Southern China, being, by their position, under the 
influence both of the Pacific trade winds and the Indian 
monsoons, are subject to severe tempests and typhoons', 
which desolate those seas more than any other in the world. 

484. Rain Winds are the winds which convey the vapor 
from the sea, where it is taken up, to other parts of the 
earth, where it is let do\vn either as rain, snow, or hail. As 
a general rule, the trade winds may be regarded as the great 
evaporating winds ; and when, in the course of their circuit, 
they become monsoons, or the variables of either hemisphere, 
they then generally become also the rain winds for certain 
localities. Thus the S. W. monsoons of the Indian Ocean 
are the rain winds for the west coast of India. In like man- 



the Indian Ocean, how caused ? — 482. North-east monsoons of the Indian 
Ocean. The monsoon season, how known ? — 483. Wind of the southern part 
of the Indian Ocean. Typhoons. — 484. The rain >vinds. The evaporating 



164 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

ner, the African monsoons of the Atlantic are the winds 
which feed the springs of the Ni'ger and Senegal' with 
rains. 



§ 3. Winds of the Temperate and Polar Regions. 

485. The temperate regions are marked by variable wuids. 
Though the winds blow from every point of the compass in 
the course of a year, the S. W. and N. E. winds are the most 
prevalent in the northern hemisphere. 

486. In the North Atlantic the S. W. passage winds pre- 
vail over the " easterly " winds in the ratio of about 2 to 1 ; 
so much so that the passage of packet ships from the United 
States to Europe is about one third shorter than the return 
passage. The comnfiercial pathway from America to Europe 
is north of the Gulf Stream, on the arc of a great circle. 
These south-west winds originate in the S. E, trade winds, 
which, having passed up and over the N. E. trades as an' 
upper current, descend to the surface at about 30° N. lat. 
They advance as far as the high latitudes of Norway, bath- 
ing all the western coasts of Europe in their soft and hu- 
mid air. 

487. The S. W. winds also prevail in the middle latitudes 
of the Pacific Ocean, extending to the western coasts of 
North America. The higher temperature of the western 
shores of the northern continents, compared with that of 
their eastern seaboards, is due, therefore, to the combined 
influence of these S. W. winds with the Gulf Stream in the 
Atlantic, and the China Stream in the Pacific. 

488. The cold air of the polar regions is constantly flowing 
towards the warmer regions, partly as an upper current, ac- 
cording to the general law of atmospheric circulation, and 
partly as a surface wind : hence in the northern hemisphere 
we have a prevaleuce of N. E. winds. These winds, finding 
an open path in North America, from one end of the conti- 
nent to the other, sweep from the borders of the Arctic 
Ocean as far as the Gulf of Mexico. They strike obliquely 
against the Pwocky Mountains, run along their slopes, and, 
being reflected by this high chain, descend as a N. W. wind 

winds. Rain -winds for the west coast of India. West Africa. — 485. Winds 
of the temperate regions. — 486. Winds of the North Atlantic. Commercial 
pathway. Origin of these south-west winds. Their influence on Western Eu- 
rope. — 487. The S. W. winds of the Pacific. Difference of temperature be- 
tween the eastern and western shores of the northern continents. — 488. Of 



OF WINDS. 165 

into the valley of the Mississippi, accompanied by cold and 
storms. Proceeding towards the Atlantic coast, they meet 
the S. W. or the equatorial winds. 

489. This conflict between the polar and equatorial winds, 
so opposite in character and direction, gives to our climate 
one of its most remarkable features, — that of changeableness, 
— that great variety of temperature, of drought and of hu- 
midity, of fair weather and foul, which mark the seasons 
with uncertainty, and the labors of the husbandman with 
doubtful results. 

490. It is to the prevalence of the S. W. winds that the 
river systems of Sibe'ria owe their supplies. These winds 
have brought their waters from the southern hemisphere, 
from the Mediterranean, and the Red Sea, to fertilize this 
otherwise barren waste. The valleys of the O'bi, the Yen- 
ise'i, and the Le'na attest the truth of this assertion. 

the N. E. winds of the northern hemisphere. Course of the polar winds on 
the North American continent. — 489. Effects of the conflict of polar and equa- 
torial winds. — 490. Influence of the S. W. winds upon Siberia. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

OF EAIN. 



" Thou \dsitest the earth and waterest it ; thou greatly enrichest it with the 
river of God, which is full of water : thou preparest them corn, when thou hast 
so provided for it." — Ps. Ixv. 9. 

§ 1. General Observations. 

491. The winds, sweeping in all directions, carry with 
them into the places where they go the temperature and 
moisture of the regions from which they came. A sea 
breeze will always be moist, and relatively temperate. It is 
ordinarily the herald of rain. A land breeze is dry and ex- 
treme, whether in cold or heat, and generally presages fair 
weather. From every part of the land and water surface, 
and at all temperatures, moisture rises in an invisible form, 
called vapor, which mingles with the air. Evaporation goes 
on more rapidly when the air is in motion than when it is 
calm. 

492. The tropical atmosphere contains a vast quantity of 
water as vapor. This is owing to ihe heat, which, being 
always very great, increases the capacity of the air for hold- 
ing moisture. Even under the most serene sky the air is 
charged with vapor. 

493. The greater part of the atmosphere rests on the 
ocean ; the sea, therefore, has the chief influence in modify- 
ing climates and supplying the air with moisture. When air 
contains all the moisture it is capable of receiving, it is said 
to be saturated. If its temperature be raised, it will hold 
more ; but if it be lowered, its capacity for vapor is dimin- 
ished, and a part of the vapor will be condensed and depos- 
ited, or precipitated. 

491. Of the mnds as carriers. Sea breeze. Land breeze. Evaporation. 
Constant. When greatest. — 492. State of the tropical atmosphere with regard 
to vapor. — 493. Chief influence in modifying climates, &c. The air, when sat- 

(166) 



OF RAIN. 167 

494. The prevailing winds of the temperate zones blow 
towards the poles ; they are going from warmer to colder 
climates ; consequently, their capacity for moisture decreases 
with their temperature, and they must let down more water 
than they can take up again. The prevailing w^inds of the 
torrid zone blow towards the equator ; they are going from 
colder to warmer climates. Their capacity for moisture is 
therefore constantly on the increase, and they must evapo- 
rate from this zone more water than they precipitate upon it 
again. 

495. When two currents of air of different temperature, 
moving rapidly towards each other, come in contact, a heavy 
fall of rain takes place, and at the same time a quantity of 
heat and electricity is disengaged, producing thunder and 
lightning. As the quantity of vapor is most abundant in 
tropical regions, the rains are heavier, and the drops are 
larger, than elsewhere. 

496. If a wind charged with clouds flows into a warmer 
and drier atmosphere, its ^capacity for vapor is thereby in- 
creased, and instantly the clouds are dissipated. This is the 
case with winds blowing from the Mediterranean towards 
the Saha'ra. 

497. When moist winds come in contact with a high moun- 
tain chain, they are forced to ascend the slopes into a higher 
and colder atmosphere, which condenses the va'pors. The 
rain flows down along the mountain sides, but the wind itself 
passes over the mountain ridge, cloudless and dry. 

498. The mountain chains are the great condensers placed 
along the continents to receive the moisture of the winds, 
to serve as reservoirs for the rain waters, and to distribute 
them afterwards, as they are needed, over the neighboring 
plains. Every system of mountains becomes the centre of 
a system of irrigation invaluable to its adjacent lands. They 
receive more rain in the heights than on their sides, and 
more falls at their bases than in the neighboring plains. 
Mountain chains which run N. and S. have a dry and a rainy 
side ; and the prevailing winds of the latitude determine 
which is the rainy and which is the dry side. 

urated. Effects of raising and lowering the temperature. — 494. Courses of 
the -winds of the temperate zones. Ton-id zones. — 495. Meeting of two cur- 
rents of air of different temperatures. Why are rains heavier in tropical re- 
gions ? — 496, A -wind charged with clouds flowing into a warmer and drier 
atmosphere. — 497. Moist -winds in contact -with a high mountain chain. — 
498. Mountain chains the great condensers. Of what is every system of 
mountains a centre ? Mountains running N. and S. — 499. Excess of precipi- 



168 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

499. In some parts of the earth the precipitation is greater 
than the evaporation ; this is shown by the amount of water 
carried by every river that runs into the sea, which is consid- 
ered as the excess of precipitation over evaporation. In 
other parts of the earth, these operations are equal, as in 
those inland basins, such as that in which the city of Mexico, 
Lake Titica'ca, and the Caspian Sea are situated. In other 
parts still, we find places, as the Desert of Sahii'ra, in which 
neither evaporation nor precipitation takes place, and in 
which we find neither plant nor animal. 



§ 2. Of Clouds. 

500. The Region of Clouds is at a height varying from 
one to four miles above the earth's surface. The different 
currents of air in the lower portions of the cloud region run 
horizontally on each other ; and as they generally differ in 
moisture, temperature, and motion, the colder condense the 
vapor of the warmer, and make it visible in the form of cloud. 
At moderate heights clouds consist of water; but at great 
elevations they are an assemblage of minute crystals of ice. 
Clouds are most frequently higher within the tropics than in 
the temperate zones ; and in the latter, they are commonly 
higher in summer than in winter. The denser clouds are 
usually formed towards noon, when the vapors are raised up 
by the ascending currents of air. Notwithstanding the varied 
forms of clouds, they may be classified under a few princi- 
pal types. There are three primary forms, viz. : the Cirrus, 
the Cumulus, and the Stratus. 

501. The Cirrus is the highest. It sometimes resembles a 
white brush, at others it consists of horizontal bands of slen- 
der silveiy filaments. The height of the cirrus is calculated 
at 19,500 feet, and is made up of minute particles of ice or 
snow flakes. Among these clouds, which sometimes appear 
like fleecy cotton, halos and mock suns are formed, which 
often precede a change of weather, announcing rain in sum- 
mer, and frost and snow in winter. 

502. The Cumulus, or summer cloud, presents itself in the 
form of a vast heap of vapors resting on a horizontal base ; 

tation over evaporation, how shown ? Equal. Neither. — 500. Height of the 
region of clouds. Formation of clouds. Clouds at moderate heights. At 
great elevations. Clouds within the tropics. In summer and winter. Denser 
clouds, when formed ? Primary forms of clouds. — 501. The currus. — 502. The 



OF RAIN. 169 

hence its name, curaiilus, a heap, or pile. It is called the 
summer-day cloud, from its frequent occurrence at that pe- 
riod, resembling a mountain of snow when lighted up by the 
beams of the sun. It usually begins to form early in the 
morning, enlarges as the day advances, attains its greatest 
magnitude in the hottest part of the day, decreases as the 
sun declines, and breaks up towards sunset. 

503. The Stratus, or fall cloud, consists of horizontal bands 
near the surface of the earth. It belongs to the night, form- 
ing at sunset and disappearing at sunrise. 

504. Besides these primary varieties, four secondary forms 
occur. The Cirro-cumulus is a feathery, accumulated cloud, 
familiarly known as fleecy, consisting of small, rounded 
patches, arranged in extensive beds, the parts being quite 
distinct. 

505. The Cirro-stratus consists of bands of filaments more 
compacted than those of the former, lying inclined, or dis- 
posed in horizontal stra'ta. It is sometimes seen cutting the 
disk of the sun or moon with a dark line. 

506. The Cumulo- stratus, or twain cloud, is formed of two 
or more cumuli united together, and resting on a common 
stratum. This is the most magnificent variety, which often 
exhibits a copper tinge, indicating a highly electrical con- 
dition of the atmosphere, and precedes the thunder storm. 

507. The Nimbus, or rain cloud. Any of the preceding 
modifications may pass over into the actual rainy cloud, 
first exhibiting a great increase of density, and a bluish- 
black tone of color, then putting on a lighter shade, or gray 
obscurity, and becoming fringed at the edges. 

508. Among the various offices "which the clouds perform, 
we find them moderating the extremes of heat and cold, and 
mitigating climates. At one time they spread themselves 
out, " covering the earth as with a mantle," thereby prevent- 
ing radiation from its surface, and keeping it warm. At an- 
other time, they interpose between the earth and the sun, 
and screen it from his scorching rays, to protect the tender 
plants from his too potent heat, the land from drought. 

509. When the condensation of vapor takes place at a 
considerable height in the atmosphere, or in very cold strata 
of air, the drops descend in the form of hail or snow. If the 
congelation of moisture takes place slowly, Snow is formed ; 

cumulus. — 503. The stratus. Secondary forms. — 504. The cirro-cumulus. — 
505. The cirro-stratus. — 506. The cumulo-stratus. — 507. The nimbus. — 508. 
Remark on the offices of clouds. — 509. Of hail. — 510. Of fogs. —511. Of 

15 



XIO , ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

whilst Hail appears to be produced suddenly by intense 
cold in the upper regions. Hail, therefore, frequently occurs 
in summer, and in hot climates where snow is unknown. 

510. Fogs and Mists are formed from the vapors just 
rising from warm and moist ground, or the surface of water, 
and coming in contact with air colder than itself They are, 
therefore, more frequent in autumn and at the approach of 
cold weather, than in spring ; and as the temperature of the 
sea is often higher than that of the atmovsphere, they are by 
no means uncommon on the ocean, more particularly in cold 
climates, and are very frequent in the polar regions. A re- 
markable stationary fog occurs off the coast of Newfound- 
land, which owes its origin to the chilly atmosphere of that 
station, and the comparative wai^mth of the waters of the 
adjacent ocean. 

511. Dew is formed when air containing an excess of 
moisture comes in contact with a surface in a certain degTee 
colder than itself. It is found to be deposited on different 
substances unequally, and in proportion to their powers of 
radiation, more on vegetables than on dry sand, and very 
little on bright metallic surfaces. The deposition of dew 
will be greatest when a clear, cool evening succeeds a sultry 
day ; little or no dew is formed if the sky be veiled in clouds. 
Frost is merely the ice of dew, as hail is the ice of rain. 

512. In the northern hemisphere, the land and water are 
nearly equally divided, but in the southern hemisphere there 
is far more water than land. All the great rivers in the 
world are in the northern hemisphere, excepting the Amazon, 
which belongs to both, and the Ri^o de la Plil'ta, which is 
in the southern ; but the chief evaporatmg surface is in the 
southern hemisphere. Late in the autumn, throughout the 
winter, and in early spring, the sun is pouring his rays with 
the greatest intensity down upon the seas of the southern 
hemisphere, and, like a powerful engine, is pumping up 
water for our rivers. 

513. The heat which this heavy evaporation absorbs 
becomes latent, and with the moisture is carried through 
the upper regions of the atmosphere until it reaches our 
climates. Here the vapor is formed into clouds, condensed, 
and precipitated in rains, snow, and hail. The heat which 
held this water in a state of vapor is set free, and it is that 

dew. Frost. — 512. Relative quantity of land and water in the northern and 
southern hemispheres. Hemisphere of great rivers. Hemisphere of evaporat- 
i«g surface. Region and season of intense action of the sun on the ocean. — 
&13. Latent heat. What tempers our winter climate ? — 514. Evaporation and 



OF BAIN. 



m 



which contributes so much to temper our winter climate. If 
in winter it clouds up and turns warm, we say we are going 
to have " falling weather." 

514. While evaporation is going on with the most activity 
in the southern hemisphere, precipitation is taking place to 
the greatest extent in the northern. The " fall spell," the 
" winter rains," and the " long season in May," are familiar 
terms of wet weather to us all. 



§ 3. Periodical and Continuous Rains. 

515. The earth, with regard to the distribution of the rains 
over its surface, is divided into two great zones ; namely, 
that of periodical rains, which are in the tropical regions, and 
that of continuous rains, which are in the temperate regions. 

516. Rains are distributed very unequally over the earth, 
diminishing in quantity from the equator towards the poles. 
They are more abundant in the western than in the eastern 
hemisphere. The annual fall of rain in tropical America is 
115 inches, while in the Old World it is only 76 inches. In 
the temperate zone of the United States the annual quantity 
is 37 inches, while on the eastern continent it is but 3 If 
inches. 

517. Within the tropics the rains follow the course of the 
sun. They prevail in the northern tropic when the sun is 
north of the equator, and in the southern tropic when it is 
south of the equator. Hence the year is divided into seasons, 
distinguished as the wet and the dry. 

518. As the sun passes and repasses from one tropic to the 
other, there are in most intermediate places two rainy seasons ; 
one when the sun passes the zenith of a place in his progress 
towards the northern tropic, and the other at his return. 

519. The rain does not fall continually during the rainy 
season between the tropics, for the sky is generally clear "A't 
sunrise. At 10 o'clock A. M. it begins to cloud up; at noou 
the rain commences, and after pouring four or five hours, the 
clouds vanish at sunset, not a drop falling in the night. 

520. In the regions of the monsoons the course of the 
rains depends entirely upon them. All the western coasts 

precipitation at opposite points. Of familiar terms. — 515. Division of tlic 
earth ^\•ith regard to rains. — -516. Distribution of rains. Annual fall of rain 
in America. In the Old World. — 517. Rain within the tropics. Seasons. — 
618. Places subject to two rainy seasons a year. — 519. Peculiarity within the 
tropics. — 520. Rains in the regions of the monsoons. — 521. Oi)posite con- 



172 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

are watered during the S. W. monsoons, and the eastern 
coasts during the N. E. monsoon. 

521. The S. W. winds lose their vapor on the summit of 
the Ghauts Mountains, and violent rains fall daily on the 
Malabar' coast, while on the Coroman'del coast the sky is 
serene. The contrary takes place during the N .E. monsoon. 
The plateau of the Dec'can between partakes of both char- 
acters. 

522. The rains of the temperate regions present a contrast 
to that of the tropics. Here we have the continuous rains. 
They fall in smaller quantity, and are more uniformly dis- 
tributed through the whole course of the year. As we leave 
the tropics their periodical character disappears. North of the 
tropics we find the winter rains, as at Madeira and Lisbon. 
Still farther north are the spring and autumnal rains, as in 
Italy and some portion of the Mediterranean. In Germany 
they have the summer rains. The general character of the 
rains of these regions, though caused mainly by the aiieeting 
of the S. W. winds with the north-easters, appears to depend 
on the influence of many geographical features. 

523. " It would be interesting, in this connection, to inquire 
why the deserts of the Old World are placed just ichere they 
are, and as they are ; and why tliose mland seas of Europe 
and Asia — the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, 
the Black and Caspian Seas — are placed in a S. W. and N. 
E. range. " 

524. The S. W. trade winds, after ascending in the equa- 
torial calms with their load of vapor, whether great or small, 
take a N. E. direction because of the earth's diurnal motion, 
and they continue to flow in that direction, in the upper regions 
of the air, until they cross the tropic of Cancer. 

525. Those winds which have passed over the ocean sur- 
face, and risen up at the equator before reaching the southern 
continents, carry immense volumes of water into the northern 
hemisphere, supplying the basins of the Mississippi and the 
great system of fresh water lakes in North America, the 
Rhine, the Elbe, and all the great rivers of Europe that flow 
into the Atlantic, and in Asia the Ganges and all the great 
rivers of China. 

526. Those winds which have blown their course over 

dition of the Malabar and Coromandel coasts. Of the Dcccan. — 522. Rains of 
the temperate regions. Successive chanijjes in leaving the tropics. Their gen- 
eral character, dependent on what ? — 523. Interesting inquiry. — 524. Course 
of the S. W. trades after ascending in the zone of calms. — 525. State of 
those winds that have passed over the ocean. Their effects. — 526. State of 



OF RAIN. 173 

South America and Southern Africa leave much of their 
vapor behind to feed the sources of the Amazon, the Ni'ger, 
and the Con'go; consequently, they arrive in the northern 
hemisphere as dry and thirsty S. W. winds, and, taking their 
route tlirough Europe and Asia, along the range of those 
inland seas, they take up their waters and bear them off to 
distant regions, making lands fruitful which otherwise would 
be barren wastes. " Hence we perceive that these sheets 
of water were placed where they are, and as they are, by the 
almighty hand, to balance the land in the trade wind region 
of South America and Africa." — [Maury.] 

527. The quantity of rain decreases in ascending from the 
plains to the table lands, especially if they are edged by 
mountains, because the mountains condense the vapor before 
it arrives at the high plains. On the contrary, the quantity 
increases in ascending to the tops of rugged mountains, on 
account of partial currents of air which condense the moisture 
into clouds. The quantity of rain decreases from the coasts 
into the interior of the continents, because more vapor rises 
from the sea than from the land. The vapor from the Gulf 
Stream produces a greater quantity of rain and fog in the 
southern counties of England and Ireland than in other parts 
of those islands. 

528. There are vast tracts of country on which rain never 
falls, and there are places where it rains only at long intervals 
and in small quantities. The most extensive rainless district 
is in the eastern continent, and reaches from the borders of 
Moroc'co, eastward through Saha'ra, over the Red Sea, the 
low coasts of Ara'bia, Per'sia, and part of Beloochistan'. The 
Desert of Co'bi, on the oriental plateau, and part of Mongolia 
form another rainless district of the Old World. In the 
western continent, the table land of Mexico, part of Guate- 
mala, and the western declivity of the Peruvian And^^, 
comprise the rainless districts. 

529. Each continent depends for its rains and the tempering 
of its climates upon the particular disposition of its mountain 
chains, its plateaus, plains, and inland seas, with regard to 
the maritime winds. 

those which blow over South America and Southern Africa. Their efFects. 
JPurpose of the inland seas of Europe and Asia. — 527. Quantity of rain in as- 
cending from the plains to the table lands. In ascending to the tops of rugged 
mountains. In receding from the coasts to the interior of a continent. Effects 
of the Gulf Stream on the south of England and Ireland. — 528. Rainless tracts, 
&c. Rainless districts of the eastern continent. Of the western continent. — 
629. On what does each climate depend for its rains and climates ? — 530, 
15=^ 



174 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 4. Rains of the Western Hemisphere. 

530. South America, from its tropical situation, secures a 
copious supply of moisture. The calm and trade wind belts 
move up and down the earth, annually, in latitude nearly a 
thousand miles. In July and August the zone of equatorial 
calms is between 7° N. and 12° N., and in March and April 
between 5° S. and 2° N. The eastern plains of South 
America are open to the trade winds of the Atlantic, which 
sweep over them, bearing along the vapors of the ocean. 

531. The Brazilian and Pari'ma Mountains are too low to 
arrest the progress of these winds; they therefore serve to 
increase the falling showers and to furnish a more complete 
irrigation, in supplymg such rivers as the Orino'co, the lower 
tributaries of the Amazon, the Tocantins', and the St. Fran- 
cis'co. 

532. The crest of the Andes, rising into the region of per- 
petual snow, forms a complete barrier to all moist winds 
from the east. Here they accumulate and condense, pouring 
their waters down the eastern slopes. All this tract of country 
at the eastern foot of the Andes is one of the best watered 
on the globe, giving rise to the Amazon, the Ucaya'le, the 
Pi'rus, the Madei'ra, and many others. 

533. The western slope of the Andes presents a different 
condition of things. Neither the trade winds nor their va])ors 
arrive there. The coast from the equator to Chile is seldom 
refreshed by the rains of the ocean. Hence opposite climates 
exist on opposite sides of the Andes. In one there is the 
richest vegetation; in the other there is drought, a parched 
soil, and thinly-scattered vegetation. 

534. In the west of New Grenii'da this effect of the Andes 
is neutralized, both by the depression of the chain towards 
the north, allowing the trade wind to pass round it and reach 
the western side, and by its being situated in the zone of 
calms, affording almost daily storms of rain. 

535. The southern coast of Chile, in winter, is left within 
the regions of the N. W. winds, — those which are counter 
to the S. E. trades, — and being cooled by the winter tem- 
perature of the highlands of Chile, deposit their moisture 
copiously. During the remainder of the year the greater part 

Rains of South America. — 531 . Effect of the Brazilian and Parinaa Mountains. -— 

632. Of the Andes. Remark on the country at the eastern foot of the Andes. — 

633. At the western slope of the Andes. Of the opposite sides. — 534. Of the 
Andes in the west of New Grenada. — 535. Rains in Chile. — 536. In Ore;;on 



OF RAIN. 175 

of Chi'le is in the region of the S. E. trades, when it is the 
dry season there. 

536. In Or'egon and Washington it rains every month, but 
more in the winter months. The winter there is the summer 
of the southern hemisphere. The vapor that is taken up by 
the S. E. trades is borne along over the region of the N. E. 
trades to latitude 35° or 40° K, where it descends and ap- 
pears on the surface with the S. W. winds of those latitudes. 
Driving upon the highlands of the continent, this vapor is 
condensed and precipitated, during this part of the year, in 
almost constant showers ; and reaching beyond the Rocky 
Mountains, it supplies the sources of the Missou'ri, Missis- 
sip'pi, and the great lakes. In Riis'sian America, where the 
S. W, winds strike the coast, there are continuous and copi- 
ous rains, a temperate, equal climate, and a vegetation like 
that of the coasts of Scotland and Norway. 

537. In winter and spring the S. W. winds, backing down to 
the south, reach as far down as the lower part of California. 
At this season the land there is cooler than the sea air, and 
is quite cold enough to extract moisture from it. But in 
summer and autumn the land is warmer than the sea airs, 
and therefore cannot condense the vapor of the air. So the 
same cause which made it rain in Or'egon now makes it 
rain in California. 

538. As the sun returns to the north the calm and trade 
wind belts follow him ; and now, at places where six months 
before the S. W. winds were prevailing, the N. E. trades are 
found to blow. This is the case in California. The prevail- 
ing winds, then, instead of going from a warmer to a cooler 
climate, as before, are going in the opposite way. Conse- 
quently no moisture can be precipitated under such circum- 
stances. 

539. Panama' is in the region which is traversed by the 
equatorial calms. Where these calms are it is always rainy. 
They are over the latitude of Panama' from June to Novem- 
ber, which is the rainy season. The rest of the year that 
place is in the region of the N. E. trades, which, before they 
arrive there, must cross the mountains of the isthmus, on 
whose cool tops they leave their moisture, rendering Pana- 
ma' dry and pleasant. Between the tropics, west of the 
plateau of Mexico, where the N. E. trades do not come, 

and Washington. East of the Rocky Mountains. In Russian America. — 
637. Winter and spring in California. Summer and autumn. — 538. The sun 
with the cahn and trade Mind belts. — 539. The wet and dry seasons at Pana- 



176 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

there is drought, as in PenV. On the high table lands of 
California very little rain falls. 

540. There are few physical evils which may not be pal- 
liated by judicious forethought ; and even a drought, al- 
though it may seem to be a visitation of Providence, and an 
evil which cannot be provided against, because man cannot 
control the elements, may be remedied by the application of 
mind to inert matter. It is an old French maxim, and a true 
one, that " God aids those who aid themselves ; " and instead 
of sitting down to bewail his losses by the drought, and 
blaming Nature for her partial distribution of the " gentle 
rain from heaven," the farmer would do well to consider how 
a like misfortune may be averted in the future. In a recent 
" Patent Office Report " we find the following : — 

541. " The farms in the United States contain over 
300,000,000 acres, on every square foot of which there falls 
an average of 200 pounds of water, or more, per annum. 
Wisely husbanded, this immense quantity of rain water may 
render the farmers and gardeners a vastly greater service 
than it now does. Skilful engineering has yet to be applied 
to American agriculture, with a view to make the most of 
steam power, water, fuel, earth, rocks, air, sunshine, and vege- 
table and animal vitality," 



§ 5. Rains of the Eastern Hemisphere. 

542. Africa presents two regions veiy unequally supplied 
with rains. North of the equator the lands are less consoli- 
dated : the plateaus are separated from each other. From 
Cape Guardafui' to Zanguebar' the coast is but slightly ele- 
vated ; the trade winds of the Indian Ocean penetrate in- 
land. The coasts of Senegambia and of GuTn'ea are in the 
region of calms ; hence their copious rains, their moist and 
fruitful climate. 

543. South of the equator the plateaus arc continuous ; 
but the uplands, instead of being in the west, as in America, 
are along the eastern margin. The Lupa'ta chain is, proba- 
bly, the most elevated part of this continent. 

544. The eastern coast, then, arrests the vapors, and the 
rains are abundant from Cape Guardafui' to the Cape of 

ma. Rainless tract in Mexico, &c. — 540. Palliation of physical e\'ils. French 
maxim. — o^l. Remarks on irrigation. — 542. Africa north of the equator. 
Rains. — 543. Africa south of the equator. — 544. Natural consequence of 



OF RAIN. 177 

Good Hope ; while the vast elevated plains stretching west- 
ward from the Liipa'ta Mountains to the coasts of Con'go 
exhibit, so far as known, only sterility and drought, under the 
same latitude where South America is drenched by heavy 
rains. 

545. The Saha'ra, in the north, is closed against the access 
of the winds towards the east ; while its position under the 
tropic, and the nature of its soil, cause that deficiency of rain 
which renders it the most extensive desert in the world. 

546. Western Europe is open to the S. W. winds of the 
Atlantic, which bring their moisture all the year. The lim- 
ited extent of its surface, together with its deep indentations 
by many inland seas and bays, secure to it continued rains, a 
mild climate, and a comparatively high temperature. 

547. The Alps form a vast semicircle on the north of Italy, 
which receive the warm and moist winds coming from the 
Mediterranean and the ocean. Before passing this crest 
these winds lose their vapor, which falls in copious rain on 
all the southern slope. 

548. The Ap'ennines produce similar results. They form 
an arch, which is marked by the curve of the Gulf of Gen'oa 
and the valley of the Ar'no. The summits arrest the sea 
winds, and the fall of rains at their southern foot is in far 
greater quantity than that of the northern declivity in the 
plains south of the Po. 

549. The length and height of the Scandinavian QJiain, 
and its lofty frozen table lands, present an insurmountable 
barrier to tlie vapors brought to the coast of Norway by the 
S. W. winds from the Atlantic. They are condensed almost 
entirely upon the Norwe'gian shores, which are constantly 
enveloped in drizzling fogs. The temperature of this wind, 
together with the heat set free by so active a condensa- 
tion of vapor, affords the remarkably soft and equable cli- 
mate by which it is distinguished. The same wind brings 
clear and cold weather to the southern and eastern coasts of 
Sweden. 

550. In Southern Asia the rains are regulated by the 
monsoons and mountain ranges. The rainy seasons of Hin- 
dostan' are reversed on its two coasts, while on the plateau 
of the Dec'can the rains are reduced to a small quantity. 

tliis disposition of the lands. — 51-5. Why is the Sahara destitute of rain ? — 
546. Nature and causes of the climate of Western Europe. — 547. Position of 
the Alps with regard to moisture. — 548. Position of the Apennines. — 549. 
Highlands of Scandinavia. Etfects produced by the S. W. winds from the At- 
lantic in Norway and in Sweden. — 5od. Regulation of the rains in Southern 



178 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

* 

551. The region of Iiydo-Chi'na, and of the Asiatic Arghi- 
pel'ago, is one of the best watered portions in the world, the 
canses of which are found in the conflict of the winds, the 
variety of lands, and the want of a continuous mountain chain. 

552. The majestic chain of the Himalay'a, the most mas- 
sive and lofty on the globe, separates Southern Asia from 
the great body of the continent, and stops the course of the 
ocean winds. These winds, in passing over the plains of the 
Gctn'ges, lose their moisture on the southern slopes of the 
Himalay'a, fertilizing the inland valleys, and supporting a 
most profuse vegetation up to the snow line. But beyond 
the table lands are deprived of this beneficial influence ; and 
towards the interior we find the Desert of Co'bi and the 
sandy plains of Toorkistan', the rainless tracts of Asia. 

553. In Australia the highlands are on the eastern bor- 
der, as in Africa. The southern tropic divides the continent 
into two parts, and in the southern portion are situated the 
Australian Alps. The trade winds of the Pacific scarcely 
penetrate the interior, and the wind of the temperate regions 
shuns the coast. The interior of Australia is, therefore, be- 
lieved to be a desert. 

§ 6. Summary. 

554. The several continents, with regard to the circum- 
stances of moisture and dryness, may be noted as follows : 
North America is the best watered of the temperate conti- 
nents ; the rains are equally distributed. South America is 
the most humid of the tropical continents. Europe combines 
the moisture of the maritime climate with a great variety of 
contrasts ; but they are all softened. Asia and Africa pre- 
sent the absolute contrast of dry and moist, in the zone of 
deserts touching upon the regions bathed by the rains of the 
tropics. Temperate Asia is the driest of the northern con- 
tinents ; and Australia is the driest and poorest of all the 
continents. 

655. The western continent is one of plains, and the plains 
are open to the sea winds. Its continental forms are less 
piled up and massive. The eastern continent is that of pla- 
teaus, and of vast extents : it is also the driest. 

Asia. — 5-51. Of Indo-China and the Asiatic Archipelago. — 552. Of the dispo- 
sition of the Himalaya Mountains. The ocean Mdnds on the southern slopes 
of the Himalaya. On the northern side. — 553. Highlands of Australia. Their 
effects. — 554. Points for recapitulation. North America. South America. 
Europe. Asia and Africa. Temperate Asia. Australia. — 555. Western con- 
tinent. The eastern continent. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

OF OCEAN CURRENTS. 

" Hast thou entered into the springs of the sea ? or hast thou walked in the 
search of the depth ? " — Job xxxviii. 16. 

§ 1. General Observations. 

556. The ocean is every where in motion. Here, as in all 
other departments of nature, absolute rest is unknown. From 
whatever part of the ocean a current is found to run, to the 
same part a current of equal volume is obliged to return. 
This is as true of the air as of the water of the globe. The 
force of the wind, the attraction of the sun and moon, the 
atmospheric pressure, the differences of temperature, and the 
differences of saltness, are all considered as causes of motion 
in the waters of the great ocean. 

557. Waves. — The winds raise the waves of the sea by 
a mechanical action, producing only an agitation of its sur- 
face. The agitation at first extends little below the surface, 
but in long-continued gales even the deep water is troubled. 
The highest waves known are those which occur during the 
N. W. gales off" the Cape of Good Hope, and the highest 
waves here do not probably exceed 40 feet from the hollow 
trough to the summit. When the winds blow constantly in 
one direction, they cause a transfer of the surface water. 

558. Tides. — The great mass of ocean waters is attracted 
by the sun and moon, causing the tides. The height to which 
the tides rise depends upon the relative positions of the sun 
and moon, upon their declination and distance from the earth, 
but more upon local circumstances. The spring tides happen 
at new and full moon; consequently twice in each lunar 
month, because in both cases the sun and moon are in the 
same meridian. For when the moon is new they are in 

556. Condition of the ocean. Law of currents. Causes of motion in the 
■waters of the ocean. — 557. Of waves. Highest known. Transfer of water. — 
558. Of tides. Springtides. Neap tides. Time of tides. — 559. The moon's 

(179) 



180 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

conjunction, (that is, both on the same side of the earth,) and 
when she is full they are in opposition ; and in each of these 
positions their force is combined to raise the water to its 
greatest height. On the contrary, the neap or lowest tides 
happen when the moon is in her quarters, or 90° from the 
sun, for then they counteract each other's attraction to a 
certain degree. The tides ordinarily happen twice in 24 
hours, because the rotation of the globe brings the same point 
of the ocean twice under the moon's meridian. 

559. The moon produces another important effect on the 
earth, which may be mentioned here, and that is, the light it 
affords during the absence of the sun — an effect peculiarly 
important in the regions near the poles. Two very beautiful 
results arise : one is, that when the moon is full it comes to 
the meridian at midnight, so as to distribute its light equally 
over the hours of darkness ; the other is, that coming to the 
full w^hen it is in the opposite side of the heavens from the 
sun, it comes to the full in midwinter, when it is nearly in 
the same place in the heavens in which the sun is at mid- 
summer, that is, when he rises highest and remains longest 
above the horizon. It thus affords the greatest portion of 
light w"hen it is most needed. 

560. Other Causes of Marine Currents. — The un- 
equal pressure of the atmosphere on different points of the 
ocean, causing differences of level, and above all the differ- 
ences of temperature between the tropical and polar seas, 
together with the effects produced by the salts of the sea 
upon the density of waters, are so many more causes which 
operate to disturb the repose of the ocean. 

561. The greater part of these causes often act together to 
produce the marine currents ; but the difference of tempera- 
ture between the equatorial and polar regions seems, by its 
agency manifested in evaporation, condensation, and precip- 
itation of the rains, and the constancy of its action, to control 
all the rest. 

562. There is a similarity, and in some cases a remarkable 
coincidence, between the great atmospheric currents and the 
general marine currents. Not only do the winds act directly 
upon the waters, sweeping them onward in their course, but 
the same forces drive them both in a common direction ; the 
same obstacles — the continents — check their onward move- 
ment, and compel them to change their original route. 

light. — 560. Other causes which disturb the repose of the ocean. — 5G1, Action 
of these causes. Chief controlling power. — 562. Similarity and coincidence of 



OF OCEAN CURRENTS. 18 I 

563. The great equatorial current seems to be a general 
transfer movement of the tropical waters from east to west 
all round the globe. Tt is owing to the dilFerence of tem- 
perature between the tropical and polar seas. The colder 
and heavier waters of the polar regions perpetually tend 
towards the warmer and lighter waters of the equator, and 
to displace them. The existence of these polar currents is 
proved by the floating masses of ice, which every spring stray 
towards the warm regions. 

564. The equatorial current is arrested in its progress by 
the continents, causing the waters to flow back in very difl?er- 
ent directions. Each of the three great oceans forms a 
separate basin, in which various circumstances combine to 
modify the oceanic currents in a peculiar manner. 

565. The Pacific Ocean, owing to its vast extent, affords 
greater scope to the general currents in a more regular man- 
ner than either of the others ; but yet there is a harmony of 
arrangement pervading all. Every drop of water in the sea 
is as obedient to law and order as are the planets of the solar 
system. There are regular and certain channels through 
which the water travels from one part of the ocean to an- 
other, and those channels make the system of oceanic circu- 
lation as complete, as perfect, and as harmonious, as is that 
of the atmosphere. 



§ 2. The South Polar Current. 

566. This ice-bearing current, turned eastward by the pre- 
vailing winds of these regions, strikes the western coast of 
South America between 50° and 40° S. lat. It divides into 
two branches. One branch runs southward, doubling Cape 
Horn, and carrying its waters into the Atlantic. 

567. The other and chief branch, known as Hum'boldt's 
current, passes along the coast of Chile and Perti', cooling 
the climate by the low temperature of its waters, which are 
from 18° to 22° Fahr'enheit colder than the neighboring sea 
off* Li'ma. This current suddenly quits the coast near the 
promontory of Cape Blan'co, and goes on to form the grand 
equatorial current. 

the currents of air and ocean. — 563. What is the great equatorial current? 
Its cause ? Proof of the polar currents. — 564. Obstacles to the progress of 
the equatorial current. The basin of the oceans. — 565. Peculiarity of the 
Pacific Ocean. The seas all obedient to law and order. — 566. The south polar 
current. Two branches. First. — 567. Second or chief branch. Humboldt's 
16 



182 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 3. The Grand Equatorial Current. 

568. This current occupies a breadth of nearly 50 degrees, 
extending beyond the tropics north and south. It keeps an 
unobstructed course westward with a speed of 30 to 35 miles 
a day, reaching the islands that skirt the continents of Asia 
and Australia. On the north it reaches Formo'sa, and running 
upon the coast of Chl'na, turns off to the K E. along the 
shores of Japan'. On the south it is disturbed by the mon- 
soons, and loses its way amidst the maze of islands, whose 
seas are thereby rendered dangerous to navigation. 

569. In the North Pacific the west winds cause a drift 
current, which advances to the American coast, and conducts 
the waters southward along the shores of California, again to 
mingle with the general current. At Behr'ing's Straits the 
depth is insufficient to allow much under-current from the 
Arctic Ocean to enter the Pacific, while the warmer waters 
are constantly flowing through this passage into the Polar Sea. 

570. Currents of the Indian Ocean. — Several active 
currents have their beginning in this sea, and carry from it 
volumes of overheated water. The waters here are hotter 
than those of the Caribbean Sea, and the evaporation is 
greater.. One of these is the Mozambique' current, called at 
the Cape of Good Hope the Agiirhas current. Another passes 
through the Straits of Malac'ca, and being joined by other warm 
streams from the Ja'va and Chi'na Seas, flows out into the 
Pacific between the Philip'pines and the shores of Asia. 
Thence it takes the great circle route for the Aleu'tian Islands, 
tempering climates, and losing itself in the sea on its route to 
the coast of America. Midway between Africa and Australia, 
another current at times flows south from the Indian Ocean. 
To supply the waste created by these warm currents, as well 
as that caused by evaporation, there must be immense vol- 
umes of water flowing into the Indian Ocean. 

571. The current in the channel of Mozambique' acquires 
a speed of four or five miles an hour, and, reenforced by 
another branch south of Madagas'car, reaches in its rapid 
course the Cape of Good Hope and the Agfil'has Bank, 
following the borders of it at a distance from the coast, when 

current — 568. Grand equatorial current. Northern limit and course. South- 
em. — 569. North Pacific. Drift cm-rent. At Behring's Strait. — 570. Currents 
of the Indian Ocean. Temperature and evaporation. Mozamhique current. 
Straits of Malacca. Route from the Philippines. Current setting south from 
the Indian Ocean. — 571. The Mozambique current. Its course onward. Cur- 



• OP OCEAN CUERENTS. 183 

it divides. One branch meets the current setting from the 
South Atlantic, and with it reenters the Indian Ocean ; the 
other branch doubles the Cape of Good Hope, enters the At- 
lantic, and flowing along the western coast of Africa, unites 
its waters with those of the great current of this third ocean. 

572. The form of the Atlantic basin, its small breadth in 
the region of the equator, the jutting in and out of the shore 
line, as at Cape St. Roque and the Gulf of Gum'ea, the deep 
windings of the Caribbe'an Sea and Gulf of Mexico, wherein 
nearly all the tropical waters of this ocean are accumulated, 
give to its currents a marked and unusual aspect. 

573. The equatorial current does not assume its customary- 
proportions in the Atlantic, while the return current, the Gulf 
Stream, is exhibited in a remarkable manner. Leaving the 
coasts of Southern Africa, the equatorial current soon extends 
both sides of the line, widens considerably, and flows across 
the ocean at the rate of two or three miles an hour. 

574. At Cape St. Roque it divides into two branches. One 
part, flowing southward along the BrazTFian coast, mingles 
■with the waters of the southern basin, and tempers the climate 
of Eastern Patago'nia and the Falkland Isles. The other 
and chief branch takes a direction along the shores of Guia'na, 
one part moving on eastward of the Windward Islands, and 
another portion, entering the Caribbe^an Sea, passes tlu'ough 
the Channel of Yucatan' into the Gulf of Mexico. After 
making the circuit of the gulf, it flows through the Straits of 
Florida, and comes forth as, — 



§ 4. The Gulf Stream. 

575. The Gulf Stream, one of the most marvellous phe- 
nomena of the ocean, pours its warm waters over the Baha'ma 
Banks, and flows along the coast of Florida, through a bed 
of cold water, which cold water performs to the warm the 
ofiice of banks to a river. The depth of the Florida Pass has 
been ascertained to be 500 fathoms ; the depth of the warm 
waters of the stream there is assumed to be 200 fathoms. 

576. The velocity of the current varies in the " Narrows" 
from 2 to 5 miles an hour, according to the season, and at a 

rent reentering the Indian Ocean. Branch doubling Cape of Good Hope. — 
572. Why do the Atlantic currents bear a marked and unusual aspect? — 573. 
Remark on the equatorial current of the Atlantic. Its course and rate. — 574. 
Division at Cape St. Roque. South branch. Northern branch. — 575. The 
Gulf Stream. Its bed. Depth at Florida Pass, — 576. Velocity of the stream. 



184 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. • 

temperature of nearly 86° Fahr'enheit. It holds its course 
parallel to the shore, and at a short distance from it, until it 
passes beyond Cape Hat'teras. At this point it meets the 
cold waters from the north, and the sand banks running alonof 
at a distance from the coast, as far as New'foundland'. By 
these impediments the current is turned eastward, becomes 
less deep, but much broader, spreads over the surface, and 
proceeds with less velocity. 

577. The Gulf Stream as it issues from the Florida Pass 
is of a dark indigo blue ; the line of separation between it 
and the roily green waters of the Atlantic is plainly seen for 
hundreds of miles. Though this line is finally lost to the eye 
as the stream goes north, it is detected by the thermometer 
for several thousand miles. The surface of the stream is 
roof-shaped ; that is, it is higher in the middle and lower at 
the edges. Its bed from the " Narrows " northward is as- 
cending, and therefore the current of waters is actually forced 
up an inchned plane, and what it loses in depth is gained in 
breadth on the surface. 

5 78. The prevalence of the S. W. winds in the North At- 
lantic causes the effects of these warm waters of the tropics 
to be felt beyond the prescribed limits of the current. The 
coasts of the British Isles and Norway are bathed in moisture, 
their temperature is softened, and ..often plants and seeds 
from the tropical regions are deposited along their shores. 

579. Among the agents concerned in producing the Gulf 
Stream, there are two which are prominent. One of these is 
the increased saltness of its waters after the trade winds have 
been supplied with vapor from it; and the other is in the 
diminished amount of salt which the Bal'tic and North Seas 
contain. The waters of the Caribbe'an Sea and Gulf of 
Mexico are much more salt and heavy than common sea 
Yv^ater, while that of the BaFtic and North Seas are but little 
more than brackish, and are lighter than sea water. " In 
order to comprehend aright the currents of the sea, it is ne- 
cessary to understand the effects produced by the salts of the 
sea upon the equilibrium of its waters ; for wherever equi- 
librium be destroyed, it is restored by motion, and motion 
among fluid particles gives rise to currents, which in turn 
constitute circulation." — [Maury.] 

Temperature. Course. Impediments to its progress. — 577. Color. Ther- 
mometer test. Shape of surface of the stream. Bed. — 578. Effects of the 
warmth of the Gulf Stream. Where felt. — 579. Two prominent agents concerned 
in causing this stream. liemaik of Lieutenant Maiury on the salts of the sea. — 



OF OCEAN CURRENTS. 185 



§ 5. North Polar Currents. 

580. There is a powerful current setting from Baffin's Bay 
through Davis's Straits, which moves an immense vokime of 
water down towards the equator. Laden with icebergs, this 
current meets the Gulf Stream near the Grand Banks, where 
it is divided. One branch continues as an under current 
towards the Caribbe'an Sea, and the other, pursuing its course 
to the south, is felt as an in-shore current along the coast of 
the United States as far as Florida. 

581. Besides this constant surface current which i* setting 
out of the Arctic Ocean, there is an under current setting 
from the Atlantic towards the polar basin. This under current 
is known to exist, from the fact that immense icebergs, with 
tops reaching high up in the air, and of course their bases 
extending far down into the depths of the ocean, are often 
seen ripping and tearing their way, with terrific force and 
violence, through the surface ice, or against a surface current, 
and moving onward towards the north with great velocity. 

582. There is on the usual sailing route between New York 
and the north of Europe, which runs with the Gulf Stream, 
a body of cold water, which presses down into the Gulf Stream 
from the north, causing a bend like a horseshoe. This " bend " 
is the great receptacle of the icebergs which drift down from 
the north. It varies in position and extent, often covering 
several thousand miles of surface ; and it affords instances of 
the greatest and most sudden changes that are known to 
take place in the temperature of the surface waters of the 
sea. Between this horseshoe bend of cold water and New- 
foundland there is a layer or branch of warm waters, probably 
a branch of the Gulf Stream. The difference of temperature 
between these two bodies of water produces those dense 
fogs that hang over the Banks of Newfoundland. 

583. Counter Currents are of such frequent occurrence 
that there is scarcely a strait joining two seas which does not 
furnish an example — a current running in along one shore, 
and another running out by the other. One of the most re- 
markable of these is found in the Atlantic. It begins off the 
coast of France, and after sending a mass of water into the 
Mediterranean, it holds a southerly course at some distance 

580. Surface current from Baffin's Bay. Icebergs. Under current. In-shore 
current. — 581. Under current setting toicards the polar basin. How known to 
exist. — 582. Occurrence on the sailing route between New York and the north 
of Europe. The " horseshoe bend.'' Cause of the dense fogs on the Banks 
of Newfoundland. — 583. Counter currents. Remarkable instance. — 584. The 
16* 



186 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

from Africa. Passing the coast of Libo'ria, it flows rapidly 
for 1000 miles eastward to the Bigiit of Biaf'ra, in immediate 
contact with the equatorial current, which is running with 
considerable velocity in an opposite direction. 

584. Midway in the Atlantic, in the triangular space be- 
tween the Azores', Cana'ries, and Cape Verd Islands, is the 
Sargas'so Sea, so thickly matted over with gulf weed {fu'cus 
nCi'tans) that the speed of vessels is often much retarded in 
passing through it. It is the centre of the whirl caused by 
the motion of the Gulf Stream in its circuit. 

585. Whirlpools are caused by opposing winds and tidal 
currents. The Maelstrom, on the coast of Norway, is occa- 
sioned by the meeting of these currents round the islands of 
Loffo'den and Mos'koe. It is a mile and a half in diameter, 
and so violent that its roar is heard at a distance of several 
leagues. 

§ 6. Effects of Currents on Navigation. 

586. The safety and length of a voyage depend very much 
upon the skill with which a seaman avails himself of the 
course of ocean currents, and of the permanent and periodical 
winds. From Acapulco, in Mexico, across the Pacific to Ma- 
nilla or Canton', the trade wind and equatorial current are so 
favorable, that the voyage is accomplished in 50 or 60 days ; 
])ut in returning it requires much longer time. 

587. In the Caribbe'an Sea the navigation is so difficult 
from winds and currents, that a vessel, in going from Jamai'ca 
to the Leevv'ard Islands, must go round through the Windward 
Passage between Cuba and Hay'ti to the ocean. 

588. The outward passage from the United States to Eu- 
rope is one third shorter than the return voyage. Ships from 
Europe to the West Indies, Central or South America, gen- 
erally take their departure from the Cana'ries, in order to fall 
in with the N. E. trade winds. 

589. The passage from the English Channel to the Cape 
of Good Hope may be undertaken at any season ; but it is 
necessary to regulate the voyage from the cape to India and 
China according to the seasons of the monsoons. 

590. Before the Gulf Stream was known to practical navi- 



Sargasso Sea. — 585. Whirlpools. Maelstrom. — 586. Of voyages as influenced 
by winds and currents. — 587. Navigation in the Caribbean Sea. — 588. Passages 
to Europe from the United States. Voyages from Europe to the West Indies, 
&c. — 589. Passage from the English Channel to the Cape of Good Hope. From 
the cape to China. — 590. Of commerce before the Gulf Stream was known. 



OF OCEAN CURTIENTS. 187 

gators the course of trade between England and America 
was such as to make Charleston, S. C, the half-way house 
between the mother country and the New England States, 
including Pennsylvania and New, York among the latter. At 
that time the usual route of vessels bound to America was to 
run down on the other side of the Atlantic towards the Cape 
Verds, till they got the N. E. trade winds, and with them 
steer for America. This was the route taken by Columbus. 
It brought them upon the coast of the Southern States ; then 
steering to the northward, they drifted along until they reached 
their place of destination. Charleston then had more com- 
merce than New York and all the New England States put 
together. 

591. About the year 1785 Dr. Benjamin Franklin an- 
nounced that simply by dipping a thermometer in the water 
navigators might know when they entered and when they 
cleared the Gulf Stream. This changed the route across 
the Atlantic, shortened the passage from 60 to 30 days, com- 
ing this way, and consequently changed the course of trade 
also ; the northern ports became the half-way house, and 
Charleston an outside station. 

592. The China Current. — Though the course of the 
China or " Gulf Stream " of the North Pacific has never 
been traced out, there are several points of resemblance be- 
tween it and the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic. Suma'tra 
and Malac'ca correspond to Florida and Cuba; Borne'o to 
the Baha'mas, with the Old Providence Channel to the south 
and the Florida Pass to the west. The coasts of China an- 
swer to those of the United States, the Philip'pines to the 
Bermu'das, the Japan' Islands to Nevv'foimdland'. As with 
the Gulf Stream, so here with the China Current, there is a 
counter current of cold water between it and the shore. 

593. The climates of the Asiatic coast correspond with 
those of America along the Atlantic ; and those of Or'egon, 
Washington, and Vancou'ver are duplicates of Western Eu- 
rope and the British Isles. The climate of the State of 
California resembles that of Spain ; the sandy plains and 
rainless regions of Lower California remind us of Africa, 
with its deserts between the same parallels. The North 
Paciiic, like the North Atlantic, is enveloped, where these 

Usual route of vessels bound to America. Cliarleston, S. C. — o91. Discovery 
by Dr. Franklin. Eti'ect on Charleston. — 592. The China or "Gulf Stream" 
of the North Pacific. Points of resemblance to the Gulf Stream of the At- 
lantic. — o93. Correspondence of climate. Of mists and fogs. The fisheries. 
Physical law respecting fishes as food. 



188 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

warm waters go, with mists and fogs, and streaked with 
lightning. The Aleu'tian Islands. are as renowned for fogs 
and mists as are the Grand Banks of Nevv'foundland'. The 
fisheries of Japan' are quite as extensive as those of New'- 
foundland', and the people of each country are indebted for 
their valuable supplies of excellent fish to the cold waters 
which the currents of the sea bring down to their shores. 
It seems to be a physical law that cold water fish are more 
suitable for food than those of warm water. 



Problems for Solution. 

594. a. What effect would it have on the Gulf Stream if 
Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies were entirely 
removed ? 

h. What become^ of the water that is carried off" from the 
Red Sea by the winds ? 

c. What benefits result to Europe from the position of the 
Desert of Saha'ra ? 

d. Remove the Rocky Mountains, and what effect would 
it have upon the Valley of the Mississippi ? 

e. If the Pari'ma and Brazilian Mountains were united 
along the coast, so as to block up the mouth of the Amazon', 
where would that river find its chief outlet ? What other 
effect would it have upon the river ? 

f. If the continent of North America were 20° farther 
north, what changes would be perceptible ? 

g. Suppose the contours' and reliefs of South America to 
be wholly reversed *From east to west, would it remain the 
same as it now is in all other respects ? Explain it. 

/^. Would Europe be the same as now if it were appended 
to the eastern border of Asia ? 

i. If the AUegha'nies were continued without interruption 
westward from their southern extremity until they united 
with the Rocky Mountains, what consequences would follow 
as to climate, &c. ? 

j. How would it affect Rtis'sia if the Scandinavian Moun- 
tains, in their highest elevation, were continued along the 
northern border to join the U'ral Mountains ? 

k. The cities of Ve'ra Cr6z and Mexico are in the same 
latitude, and about 200 miles apart : have they the same 
climate ? Give the reasons for your answer. 

I. If Europe, with all its islands and peninsulas, were unit- 
ed into one compact mass, what changes would result ? 



PROBLEMS. 189 

m. Suppose the position of North America to be inverted, 
by turning on the Lake of the Woods as a centre, so as to 
place Mexico in the polar regions, and British America in the 
tropical, what would be the condition of the United States ? 

n. What change of aspect would ensue if South America 
were tilted on the 60th meridian as an axis, so as to elevate 
Cape St. R5que 1000 feet, and depress Cape Blan'co in the 
same degree ? 

0. Suppose Qui'to, with its present elevation, to be placed 
in North America, on the parallel of 60°, what would be the 
consequence ? 

p. What change of circumstances in Africa would render 
the Saha'ra a fertile plain ? 

q. What change in the reliefs of Asia would supply the 
rainless districts with moisture ? 

r. Whence comes the vapor which forms the rains that fall 
on the immense watershed to which the American lakes give 
drainage ? 

s. In countries where the soil is moist and warm, and the 
air is damp and cold, which will be the most prevalent, dew, 
fogs, or clouds ? What countries afford an example ? 

t. Ham'merfest, in Norway, is the most northern town in 
Europe. Though north of 70°, the heat in summer is some- 
times oppressive, and in winter the climate is mild enough 
to carry on the fishery. How will you account for this ? 

u. Suppose a certain mountain range, thousands of miles. 
to the S. W. of the great American lakes, but across the path 
of the S. W. winds, were to be suddenly elevated, and its 
crest pushed up into the regions of snow, having a mean 
temperature of 30° Fahrenheit ; what would be the conse- 
quences ? 

V. Cor'allines are at work about the Gulf Stream ; they 
have built up the Florida Reefs on one side, and the Baha'- 
ma Banks on the other. Suppose they should build up a 
dam across that pass, and obstruct the Gulf Stream; and 
that, in like manner, they were to connect Cuba with Yuca- 
tan', by damming up the Yucatan' Pass, so that the waters 
of the Atlantic should cease to flow into the Gulf; what 
should we have ? 

10. If the crest of the Sier'ra Neva'da Mountains, in Cali- 
fornia, were from 1500 to 2000 feet lower, what effect would 
it have upon the Great Basin of the Salt Lake ? 

X. There are indications that the Dead Sea, and the great 
inland basins of Asia, once had a higher water level tlian 
they now have, and that formerly the amount of precipitation 



190 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

was greater than it now is. "What is the probable cause of 
the present state of these basins ? 

y. A boy who lived in the capital of Ohio made a very- 
pretty little boat. One day, as he was playing with it, it 
floated beyond his reach, and was carried down the stream 
Avhich passed his father's house. A long while after, he vis- 
ited Europe, and as he was walking along the sea shore on 
one of the Loffoden Islands, he found, to his surprise, the 
boat he had so long before lost. Through what rivers, bodies 
of water, and oceanic currents, had it passed, if carried 
thither by the action of the water alone ? 

z. If the Straits of Gibraltar were barred up so that no 
water could pass through, what effect would it have upon 
the Mediterranean Sea? 



h 7. Exercises foe. Examination. 

595. By what fluids is the soKd matter of the earth surrounded ? 

Describe the earth's atmosphere, and mention its probable height. 

What are some of its uses and operations ? 

What effects are produced in the temperature of the ah by height above 
the sea level ? 

What is meant by the term climate ? 

What are the prominent causes of divei*sity of climate ? 

What are the three principal elements of climate ? 

What is the grand agent in diffusing heat over the earth's surface ? 

Mention the effects produced by the earth's diurnal rotation ; and also 
the beneficial results from its incKned position in its orbit. 

How far does the artificial division of the earth into torrid, temperate, 
and frigid zones correspond with the climates of those regions ? 

What are isotherms ? Do they run parallel Avith the equator ? 

What is the average degree of heat of the line of highest temperature ? 

What regions does it cross ? 

What is meant by an insular climate ? What by an excessive climate ? 

Mention an instance of the effects produced by a large surface of water 
in tempering the climate of certain regions of the earth. 

Give some account of the height of the snow line in different regions. 

Why is it higher at certain distances from the equator tlian under that 
line ? 

Describe the effects produced on vegetation by elevation above the sea 
level, in the hot regions of the earth. 

Give some account of the temperature of mountains near table lands. 

What effects are produced on climate by the nature of the soil ? What 
by the prevailing winds ? 



EXERCISES FOR EXAMINATION. 191 

How do mountain ranges affect climate ? 

What effects are produced on climate by the currents of the ocean ? 
What districts usually possess the more excessive cKmates ? 
Does the temperature vaiy as much in intertropical as in temperate 
regions ? 



Does electricity act any part in the natural world ? 
What is meant by positive electricity ? By negative ? 
In what electrical state is the crust of the earth considered to be ? 
In what state is pure atmosphere ? 

What is meant by conductors and non-conductors ? Give examples. ' 
Mention some of the effects of the action of this powerful agent. 
What is terrestrial magnetism ? 

By what means is the distribution of terrestrial magnetism ascertained? 
In what direction does the magnetic needle point ? 
Is this direction invariable? 
What is meant by the dip of the needle ? 
What is the magnetic equator ? 
By what influence is terrestrial magnetism affected ? 
Give the exact situation of the north magnetic pole. Of the south 
magnetic pole. 



What appears to give rise to winds, or the circulation of the atmosphere ? 

Describe a sea breeze. A land breeze. 

What are the trade vdnds ? 

What causes S. W. and N. W. winds to prevail in higher latitudes ? 

Give a description of the monsoons. 

How are the calm zones respectively situated ? 

What is meant by the " horse latitudes " ? 

State the proof of the existence of an upper current of air passing from 
the southern hemisphere, and falling to the surface in the northern hem- 
isphere. 

Describe the movement of the belt of equatorial cahns. 

Give an account of the cloud ring. 

Where are the typhoons prevalent, and why ? 

What winds are regarded as the great evaporating winds ? 



In what state is water always present in the atmosphere, and by what 
means does it find its way there ? 

When is the atmosphere said to be saturated ? 

On what does the capacity of the air for moisture depend ? 

What follows the meeting of two currents of air of different tempera- 
ture? 

Why are mountain chains styled the great condensers ? 

Of what advantage is a system of highlands to the adjacent lowlands ? 
Is this invariably the case ? 

What examples can you adduce in support of this assertion ? 



1^2 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

How do we know when the precipitation exceeds the evaporation from 
any given tract of country ? 

How are clouds formed ? Of what do they consist ? 

Mention also how rain is formed, and under what circumstances hail and 
snow are formed. 

What names are given to the principal forms of clouds ? Of the com- 
binations or secondary forms ? 

At what height in the atmosphere is the region of clouds ? 

Which are the highest, and which the lowest clouds ? 

Mention some of the offices which clouds perform. 

How is dew formed ? What is frost ? 

In wliich hemisphere is the chief evaporating surface ? 

While evaporation is going on in one hemisphere, what is taking place 
in the other ? 

How is the earth divided with regard to the distribution of rains ? 

In Avhat parts of the earth does the greatest quantity of rain fall ? 

Is it more or less abundant in the new world than in the old ? State 
the comparative quantities. 

Mention the rainless districts of the earth. 

State the cause of the difference in the amount of rain in different regions. 

Give some particulars about rainy and dry seasons. 

What regions are characterized by continuous rains ? 

What relation subsists between the inland seas of Europe, and Asia and 
the plains of Siberia ? 

What relation subsists between the Valley of the Mississippi and the 
South Pacific Ocean ? 

Where were the vapors formed which feed the sources of the Amazon ? 

What contrast is presented between the eastern and western slopes of 
the Andes, with regard to rain ? Why is this ? 

State the effects resulting from the position of the Lupata chain of 
mountains in Africa. 

What characterizes the cKmate of Western Em-ope, and what circum- 
stances conspire to produce it ? 

What is the supposed condition of the interior of Austraha ? Why ? 

State the peculiarity which marks each of the several continents. 



What causes the perpetual movement of the waters of the ocean ? 

How are waves produced ? Mention some particulars concerning waves. 

By what attraction are tides caused ? 

Explain the phenomena of spring tides. Also of neap tides. 

Mention some other beneficial effects of the moon upon the earth. 

Show how the difierence in saltness may produce motion in the waters 
of the sea. 

Name the most remarkable marine currents. 

Describe the great equatorial current. The south polar current. Hum- 
boldt's current. 

Give an account of the currents of the Indian Ocean. 

Describe the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic. 

What influences cooperate to render the temperature of the N. W. 



EXAMPLES FOR EXAMINATION. 193. 

coasts of North America and Europe higher than that of the eastern 
coasts of Asia and North America ? 

How is the existence of an under current setting from the Atlantic 
towards the polar basin proved ? 

How do you accoimt for the dense fogs that hang over the Banks of 
Newfoundland ? 

Give some account of the Sargasso Sea. 

Mention some points of resemblance between the warm current of the 
North Pacific and the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic. 
17 



CHAPTER XX. 

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 

" He causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herb for the service of 
man, that he may bring forth food out of the earth." — Ps. civ. 14. 

596. The greater part of the land surface is clothed with 
vegetation, the different species of which are not scattered 
promiscuously, but were originally placed in those regions to 
which they -were adapted. The mountains, the valleys, the 
plains, the ocean beds, each have their peculiar kinds ; some 
requiring the hotl^st climate, some a more temperate air, and 
others thriving only in the midst of ice and snow. Situations 
never penetrated by the solar rays, as the dark vaults of 
caverns and the walls of mines, have their peculiar vegeta- 
tion. There is only one state which seems fatal to the ex- 
istence of vegetable life — it is, the entire absence of moisture. 

597. The most important species of plants are those which 
furnish food for man and the domestic animals — the grains, 
fruits, roots, and grasses. But all plants have their uses, for 
nothing is created by Divine Wisdom without a purpose. 

598. There are vast districts of the earth which have not 
yet been explored by the botanist, as the interior of Africa 
and Australia, with sections of America, Asia, and Oceanica, 
so that it is impossible to state the whole number of species 
in the vegetable kingdom. At the present time, however, 
the catalogue embraces 89,000 species. 

599. The vegetable kingdom is divided into three great 
classes, which differ materially in their structure. Cryptog'- 
amous plants — those which have no flowers, properly so 
called. They are the mosses, li'chens, fun'gi, ferns, and 
algae. Endog'enous plants — those which have stems in- 

596. Of the land -with regard to vegetation. Diversities of place and tem- 
perature sustaining vegetation. The onlv condition fatal to vegetable life. — 
597. Most important species of plants. Nothing in nature without a purpose. 
— 598. Unexplored districts. Present number of known species of plants. — 
699. Three principal classes of plants — crj'ptogamous plants, endogenous, 

(194) 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 195 

creasing from within. They are the numerous grasses, lilies, 
and the palm family. Exou'enoiis plants — those which 
have stems growing by additions from without. This is the 
most perfect, beautiful, and numerous class, embracing the 
forest trees, most flowering shrubs, and herbs. 

600. The first class affords the most numerous examples of 
wide diffusion. Some species of the second class are also 
widely distributed. But only in very few instances are the 
same species of ex'ogens met Avith in regions far apart from 
each other. In passing from one country to another, we gener- 
ally find a new flo'ra. All the plants of all kinds belonging 
to a country constitute the flo'ra of that country. A plant is 
considered as belonging to those regions only in which it will 
flourish and bear fruit with the natural temperature of the 
seasons. 

601. In equatorial and tropical countries, where a suflicient 
supjply of moisture combines with the influence of light and 
heat, we find vegetation in all its magnitude and glory. The 
lower orders,^ mosses, fiin'^i, and conferVa3, are very rare. 
The ferns grow as trees. Reeds ascend to the height of a 
hundred feet, and rigid grasses rise to forty feet. The forests 
are composed of majestic leafy evergreen trees, bearing 
brilliant blossoms, their colors finely contrasting, scarcely any 
two standing together being of the same species. Enormous 
creepers climb their trunks, parasit'ical plants hang in fes- 
toons from branch to branch, and increase the floral decora- 
tion with scarlet, purple, blue, rose, and golden hues. 

602. Of plants used by man for food, or as luxuries, or for 
medicinal purposes, occurring in this region, rice, bana'nas, 
dates, co'coa, caca'o, breadfruit, coffee, tea, sugar, vanilla, 
cincho'na, pepper, cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs, are either 
characteristic of it as being principally cultivated within its 
limits, or entirely confined to them. 

603. Rice, the chief food of perhaps a thuxl of the human 
race, is cultivated beyond the tropics, but principally within 
them, and only where there is a plentiful supply of water. It 
has never been found wild ; its native country is unknown, 
but probably is Southern Asia. 

604. Bananas, or plantains, are cultivated in intertropical 
Asia, Africa, and America. The banana is not known in an 
uncultivated state. Its produce is enormous, estimated to 
be as 133 to 1 of wheat, or as 44 to 1 of the potato. 

and exogenous. — 600. Their diffusion. Definition of fiora. — 601. Vegetation- 
in equatorial and tropical countries. Evergreens. Creepers. Parasites. — 
602. Tropical plants used for food, luxuries, or medicines. — 603. Of rice.— 



196 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

605. Dates and Cocoa belong to the family of palms, 
which are remarkable for their elegant forms and importance 
to man. They impress upon the vegetation of tropical coun- 
tries its peculiar cast or expression. The date palm is a 
native of Northern Africa, and is so abundant between the 
Barbary States and the Saha'ra, that the district has been 
named the Land of Dates. It skirts the margin of the desert 
in all its bondings, from the shores of the Atlantic to the 
confines of Persia, and is the only vegetable affording sub- 
sistence to man that can grow in such an arid situation. The 
annual produce of a single tree is from 150 to 260 pounds 
weight of fruit. The co'coa palm furnishes annually about 
a hundred cocoa nuts. It is spread throughout the torrid 
zone, but is most abundant in the East India Islands. 

606. Cacao, from the seeds of which chocolate is pre- 
pared, grows wild in Central Americtl, and is extensively 
cultivated in Mexico, Guatemala, and on the coast of 
Cumana'. 

607. Breadfruit tree, a native of the South Sea Islands 
and East Indies, grows also in Southern Asia, and has been 
introduced into the tropical parts of America. The fruit is 
not equal to the bana'na as an article of food. 

608. Coffee. — The bush is probably a native of the Ethi- 
opian highlands, from whence it was taken in the fifteenth 
century to the highlands of Ye'men, the southern part of 
Arabia, of which Mo'cha is the chief seaport. It has been 
introduced and is now extensively cultivated in British India, 
Ceylon', Ja'va, Mauritius, Brazil', and the West Indies, but 
the quality is inferior to that of Mo'cha. Coffee was first 
introduced into Ven'ice in 1615, into England in 1652, and 
into France in 1658. 

609. Tea. — The plant is indij'enous in China, Japan', and 
Upper Assam'. In the latter country it has recently been 
found in a wild state, and is in process of extensive cultiva- 
tion there. Tea was first introduced into Europe by the 
Dutch in 1666. 

610. Sugar Cane occurs to some extent without the tropics, 
having been cultivated centuries ago in Europe ; but it prop- 
erly belongs to the torrid zone, and has for its principal 
districts the Southern United States, the West Indies, Vene- 
ziie'la, Brazil', Mauri'tius, British India, China, the Siin'da 
and PhilTp'pine Islands. The plant was found wild in several 



604. Bananas. — 605. Dates and cocoa. Date palm. Cocoa palm. — 606. 
Cacao,— 607. Breadfruit tree. — 608, Coffee. — 609, Tea, — 610. Sugar cane. 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 197 

parts of America on the discovery of the continent, and 
occurs wild on many of the islands in the Pacific. 

611. Vanilla, the fruit of which forms the well-known 
aromatic of that name, grows wild, principally in Mexico, in 
hot, damp, shady places. 

612. Cinchona, the Peruvian bark, a forest tree, of which 
there are several species, furnishes the valuable medicine of 
that name. It is exclusively confined to South America, and 
grows chiefly on the Andes of Lo'ja and Venezue'la. 

613. Pepper belongs exclusively to the Malabar' coast, 
where it has been found wild. It is cultivated in Suma'tra, 
which produces the greatest quantity, Borne'o, Malay penin- 
sula, and Siam'. Other species occur in tropical America. 

614. Cinnamon, a small tree yielding the aromatic bark, is 
found native only in the Island of Ceylon', but another spe- 
cies occurs in In'do-Chi'na. 

615. Clove, an evergreen tree of small size, the dried flower 
biids of which form the celebrated aromatic, grows naturally 
in the Moluc'cas, from whence it has been taken to other 
tropical districts. The Island of Amboy'na is the principal 
seat of its cultivation, where the temperature is never below 
.72° ; the mean annual temperature being 82°. 

616. Nutmeg grows naturally in several islands of the 
East Indies, but is chiefly cultivated in the Ban'da Isles. 

617. In passing from the hot to temperate climates vegetation 
assumes a 'marked change in its aspect. Green meadows, 
abounding with tender herbs, take the place of the tall, rigid 
grasses which form the impenetrable jungle ; and instead of 
forests composed of lofty evergreen trees, we find woods 
which cast their leaves in winter, and become torpid in the 
colder season. They are the oak, ash, elm, maple, beech, 
lime, alder, birch, and syc'amore. The cultivation of the 
vine becomes characteristic with the perfection of the ce'real 
grasses and a larger proportion of herba'ceous annuals and 
cryptogum'ic plants. 

618. Farther from the equator magnificent forests of the 
fir and pine tribes prevail, as in the central parts of Rus'sia, 
on the southern shores of the Bal'tic, in Scandinavia, and in 
North America. But some of the ce'reals are no longer cul- 
tivated. Several of the timber trees common to the tem- 

611. Vanilla. — 612. Cinchona. — 613. Pepper. — 614. Cinnamon. — 615. Clove. 
— 616. Nutmeg. — 617. Aspect of vegetation in passing from hot to temperate 
climates. Particular kinds of trees. The vine. Cereals. Herbaceous and 
cryptogamic planffs. — 618. The fir and pine tribes. Of some cereals. Timber 
trees. Woods in the higher latitudes. Northern limits of wood. Southern 

17 # 



198 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

perate zone do not reach its northern limits. All woody 
vegetation gradually disappears as the higher latitudes are 
attained. The northern limit of wood begins in North Amer- 
ica, at Norton's Sound, and rises to 68° ; then descending, it 
crosses Great Bear Lake and Hudson Bay, leaving Labrador' 
at about 56° ; thence bending N. E., it crosses the south of 
Greenland and north of Iceland, and reaches Europe at 
North Cape, where it descends S. E. to about 66°, and con- 
tinues eastward till, in Kamtchat'ka Sea, it makes a curve 
south to join the point of commencement. The southern 
limit nowhere reaches the Antarctic continent, though it 
passes very near it due south of Tierra del Fue'go. 

619. There is a remarkable similarity of species, both of 
plants and animals, in the high latitudes of both continents. 
In the most northern parts of the arctic lands the year is di- 
vided into one long, intensely cold night, and one bright, fer- 
vid day, which quickly brings to maturity the scanty vegeta- 
tion. Within the limit of perpetual snow a very minute red 
or orange-colored plant finds nourishment in the snow itself. 
This is the beginning of vegetable life. Large patches of 
snow in the Alps and Pyr'enees are colored by it. 

620. Lichens are the first vegetables that appear at the 
limits of the snow line, whether in high latitudes or moun- 
tain tops ; and they are the first to appear on volcanic lavas 
and newly-formed islands, where they prepare the soil for 
plants of a higher order. They grow on rocks, stones, and 
trees ; in fact, on any thing that afibrds them moisture. Mosses 
follow IT'ghens on newly-formed soil, and they are found 
every w:here throughout the world in damp situations, but in 
greatest abundance in temperate climates. 

621. In some places in Siberia trees grow and grain ripens, 
even at 70° N. lat. ; but boundless swamps, varied by lakes, 
cover wide portions of this desolate country, which lies buried 
beneath the snow for 9 or 10 months in the year. As soon 
as the snow is melted by the returning sun, coarse grass and 
rushes cover the morasses, while mosses and li'ghens, mixed 
with dwarf willows, clothe the plains. The vegetation of the 
arctic regions is chiefly characterized by the predominance 
of perennial and cryptog'amous plants. 

622. A succession of plants appears on the mountains in 
the torrid zone which rise above the snow line, corresponding 

limits. — 619. Of plants and animals in high latitudes. Of day and night in 
the arctic lands. First appearance of vegetable life. — 620. Lichens. Mosses. 
— 621. Productions of Siberia. Of vegetation in the arctic regions. — 622. 
Vegetation on mountains. — 623. Plants subjected to a change of climate and 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 199 

SCALE OF VEGETATION 
In Equatorial America, accorchnf/ to the Elevation above the Sea. 



Lichens. 



C rasses, 




Tree 
Ferns, 



Talms. - ^ 



Height of Scale, 22,000 feet. 



200 ELEMENTS OF niYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

to those which are found in passing from the equatorial to the 
polar regions. 

623. There are many plants that can accommodate them- 
selves to the most diverse climates and localities ; but such 
plants become singularly modified in appearance and struc- 
ture. 

624. Some plants are confined entirely to one side of the 
globe. The heath extends from a high northern latitude in 
the Old World to the Cape of Good Hope ; but not a single 
specimen is found native in America. On the contrary, the 
New World produces the cac'ti family, while none are found 
naturally in the Old. 

625. Mountain chains very commonly divide distinct floras. 
There is a marked difference in the vegetation on the Chilian 
side of the Andes from that on the opposite side, though the 
climate and soil are nearly the same. In North America two 
completely different classes of vegetation appear on the two 
sides of the Rocky Mountains. 

626. The splendor of the North American flora is displayed 
in. the United States. The American sycamore, chestnut, 
black walnut, hickory, white cedar, wild cherry, red birch, 
locust tree, tulip tree, oak, ash, pine trees of many species, 
grow luxuriantly ; with an undergrowth of rhododen'droris, 
azaleas, androm'edas, geriir'dias, calycan'thus, hydran'geas, 
and many more of woody texture ; and an infinite variety of 
herba''ceous and climbing plants. 

627. The vegetation is different on the two sides of the 
AUegha'nian Mountains. The locust tree, Canadian poplar, 
hibis'cus, and hydran'gea are most common on the west side ; 
the American chestnut and kal'mias are numerous on the At- 
lantic side, and aquatic plants are more common. 

62S. The autumnal tints of the New England forests are 
beautiful and of endless variety. The superior gorgeousness 
of the foliage is owing not so much to any peculiarity of 
climate as to the character of some of our native trees. 
Among those which contribute to the " many-colored woods " 
of autumn are the maples, by their vivid yellows and scar- 
lets, the hornbeam, by its deep crimson, the scarlet oak, the 
yellow beech, and the dark leaves of the evergreen pines, 
with all their intermediate tints. It is not uncommon to see 
the sugar maple exhibit three distinct colors, yellow, scarlet, 

locality. — 624. Plants peculiar to the eastern continent. To the American 
continent. — G25. Effect of mountain chains on floras. Examples. — 626. North 
American flora. — 627. Vegetation on opposite sides of the Alleghanies. — 
628. The autumnal tints of New England forests. — 629. For what are the 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 201 

and green, at one and the same time, either intermingled or 
in separate masses. 

629. In the Southern States trees and shrubs are remark- 
able for broad, shining leaves and splendid blossoms — the 
magnolias, cattirpa, and hibis'cus. The magnolia grandifiora 
and the tulip tree are the most splendid specimens of this 
race of plants. The arid soil on the Atlantic coast is covered 
by the long-leaved pitch pine ; the swamps are clothed with 
cypress, swamp hickoiy, and the aquatic oak. The western 
forest is less extensive and less varied than the eastern, but 
the trees are larger. 

630. The native fruits of North America are mostly of the 
nut kind, of which there are many. To these may be added 
the Florida orange, the Chickasaw plum, the papaw', the 
bana'na, the red mulberry, and the persim'mon, with various 
wild grapes. 

631. Tobacco, cotton, Indian corn, and rice, though exten- 
sively cultivated in the United States, are not natives of this 
country. The pineapple is entirely American, growing in the 
woods and savannas of Mexico and Central America. 

632. Plants capable of extended naturalization, and ser- 
viceable as articles of food or luxiuy, have been widely dis- 
seminated by man in his migrations. The cerealia afford a 
strildng example. Wheat, barley, oats, and rye were the 
gifts of the Old World to the New. It is probable that they 
were originally from the neighborhood of the great rivers of 
Western Asia, the primitive location of the human race. 
Maize, or Indian corn, has been carried to the Old World 
from the New ; as also the potato, the use of which now ex- 
tends from the extremity of Africa to Lapland. • 

633. The ocean as well as the land has different botanical 
regions ; and changes of vegetation are observed with the 
depth similar to the variation of land plants with the height. 

trees and shrubs of the Southern States noted ? Most splendid specimens. 
The arid soil of tlie Atlantic coast. Western forest. — 630. Native fruits of 
North America. — 631. Tobacco, cotton, Indian corn, and rice. Pineapple. — 
632. Widely disseminated plants. Probable origin of the cereals. Maize and 
the potato. — 633. Of marine vegetation. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 



" And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, 
cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth, after his kind : and it was 
so." — Grew. i. 24. 

§ 1. General Observations. 

634. Man is able to adapt himself to all climates, and to 
subsist on all kinds of food. The domestic animals may live 
in almost all latitudes where man himself can make liis 
home. But all those animals whose subsistence is independ- 
ent of man's social habits dwell within certain limits, be- 
yond which they are not inclined to stray. Like plants, they 
are adapted to the situations in which Creative Wisdom has 
placed them ; and thus we find annuals belonging to cold 
climates provided with warm, furry coats, which would be 
unsuited to hot regions. Sometimes, when animals of the 
same species inhabit countries possessing different climates, 
the garb of the one will differ from that of the other, in ac- 
cordance with the difference of clmiate. If by accident, or 
the agency of man, animals are removed to places uncon- 
genial to their natures, they either perish altogether, or some 
change takes place to fit them for their new abode. 

635. A group of animals embracing all the species, both 
of land and water, which inhabit any particular region of 
country, constitutes the fauna of that country. There is an 
evident relation between the fauna of any locality and its 
climate ; but with respect to land animals, there is also a 
dependence of the fauna upon the flora, for herbivorous 
animals can only exist where there is an adequate supply 
of vegetable food. 

636. As a branch of natural history, the animal kingdom 

634. Remark on man and the domestic animals. Of other animals. — 63-5. 
Definition oi fauna. Relation between a fauna, its climate, and flora. — 636. 
Divisions of the animal kingdom. First.' Second. Third. Fourth. — 637. 

(202) 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OP ANIMALS. 203 

consists of four great divisions, or departments : I The Ver- 
tebrates, including all animals that have an internal skeleton, 
with a back bone for its axis. It is subdivided into four 
classes: 1. Mammals, (animals which nurse their young;) 
2. Birds ; 3. Reptiles ; and 4. Fishes. II. The Articulates, 
animals whose body is composed of rings or joints. It is 
divided into three classes : 1. Insects ; 2. Crustaceans ; 3. 
Worms. III. The Mollusks, animals whose bodies are 
without a bony skeleton : some have shells, forming a cover- 
ing and defence ; others are destitute of such covering. IV. 
The Radiates, animals which, in the greater number, have 
their organs of motion and sense radiating from a common 
centre. These last occupy the lowest rank in the scale. 

637. The Faunas of the globe may be divided into four 
principal divisions : the Arctic, the Cold Temperate, the 
Warm Temperate, and the Tropical. Animals dwelling at 
high elevations upon mountains, where the temperature is 
much reduced, resemble the animals of colder latitudes 
rather than those of the surrounding plains. 

638. The influence of climate in the polar regions merely 
induces a greater uniformity in the species of animals. Thus 
the same animals are found in the arctic regions of the three 
northern continents. In the temperate regions the species 
differ on each of the continents, though they still preserve 
the same general features. In the tropical regions the 
animals are not only different from those of the temperate 
zone, but they also present the greatest variety among them- 
selves. 

639. The natural features of the earth's surface limit the 
fau'nas more or less distinctly. A mountain chain, a desert, 
or the sea effects a separation between two fau'nas. Where 
there is no natural limit the transition from one fau'na to 
another is hardly preceptible. The range of species does 
not depend upon their powers of locomotion, for those which 
are active have a narrower range than those which move 
slowly and with difficulty. 

640. A very important influence is exerted upon the group- 
ing of animals, and upon the extent of their distribution, by 
the nature of their food. Carniv'orous animals have a wider 
range than herbiv'orous ones, because their food is to be 
found almost every where. The peculiar figure of a country 

Divisions of the faunas of the earth. Resemblance between animals of high 
elevations and those of the colder latitudes. — 638. Influence of climate in the 
polar regions. Temperate regions. Tropical regions. — 639. Natural limits of 
tlie fauna. Absence of a natural limit. Range of species. — 6iO. Influence 



204 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

sometimes determines a peculiar grouping of animals into 
local faunas. 

641. The range of marine animals is confined to the 
vicinity of the shores, and their distribution must therefore 
depend upon laws similar to those which regulate the land 
faunas. Migrating animals are considered as belonging to 
the place where they make their habitual abode. 



§ 2. Arctic Fauna. 

642. The prominent feature of the arctic fauna is uni- 
formity, which appears in the regularity of form and the 
dusky tints of coloring. There is not a single bird of brilliant 
plumage, nor a fish with varied hues belonging to this fauna. 
The species are few in number, but they comprise multitudes 
of individuals. Clouds of birds hover upon the islands and 
shores of the north, and shoals of fishes throng the coasts. 

643. The most conspicuous animals are the white bear, 
moose, reindeer, musk ox, white fox, polar hare, lemming, and 
various seals ; the whales are the most important. Among 
the birds there are some eagles and a few waders, with im- 
mense numbers of gulls, cor'morants, divers, pet'rels, ducks, 
geese, &c. There are no reptiles, and insects are rare. 

644. The southern boundary of the arctic fauna corre- 
sponds nearly to the line where forest vegetation succeeds 
the vast barren plains. In North America it is farther north 
on the western side than on the eastern ; and still farther 
north in Europe, where it touches the continent at North 
Cape, and then descends to the latitude of 65°, following 
that till it crosses the southern part of Kamtchat'ka. 



§ 3. Temperate Faunas. 

645. The north temperate zone may be subdivided into two 
regions — a northern or cold region, where the trees, except 
the pines, drop their leaves in winter ; and a southern or 
warm region, where the trees are evergreen. The dividing 
line would coincide with a line running about four degrees 
nearer the equator than the limit of the vine. In the United 

of food on the grouping of anim.als. Local faunas. — 64L Range of marine 
animals. Migrating animals. — 642. Prominent feature of the arctic fauna. 
Species and individuals. — 643. Most conspicuous kinds of animals. Birds. 
Reptiles. Insects. — 644. Southern boundary of the arctic fauna. — 645. Sub 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 205 

States it would mn between the Carolinas, and in Europe 
it would extend along the Pyr'enees and the Alps. 

646. The temperate faunas are more varied than those of 
the arctic regions. There are many animals of graceful form, 
animated appearance, and varied colors. The forests swarm 
with insects, worms, &c., which become the food of still other 
animals. The principal among the mammalia are the bison, 
deer, ox, horse, hog ; numerous roden'tia, especially squirrels 
and hares ; nearly all the insectiv'ora, with the weasel, mar- 
ten, wolf, fox, and wildcat. Among the birds there is a 
multitude of climbers, pas'serine, gallina'ceous, and many 
rapacious birds. Of reptiles there are lizards, tor'toises, and 
serpents. Of fishes, the trout, sturgeon, pike, cod, herring, 
and mackerel are numerous. 

647. The faunas of the South Temperate Regions differ 
widely from those of the north. Here, also, there are two 
divisions, the colder of which embraces Patagonia, where we 
find peculiar species of seals, and, among the aquatic birds, 
the penguin. 

648. Each of the three southern continents presents in its 
fauna a separate world. The animals of South America, 
beyond the tropic of Capricorn, are in all respects different 
from those of Southern Africa. The hye'na, wild boar, and 
rhinop'eros of the Cape of Good Hope have nothing like 
them in South America, and the difference is equally great 
between the birds, reptiles, fishes, and insects. 

649. Australia has a fauna wholly unlike that of the rest 
of the world. Its animals are entirely unusual in type, few 
in species, and still fewer individually. Among the most re- 
markable may be mentioned the kangaroo', kangaroo' rat, 
the flying opos'siim, and the duck-billed mole. 



§ 4. Tropical Faunas. 

650. In the intertropical regions we find that quadrupeds are 
most remarkable for their magnitude, strength, and ferocity ; 
that reptiles are larger and more venomous ; that birds are 
decked with the most splendid plumage, and the insect tribes 
distinguished for their size and the brilliancy of their tints. 

division of the temperate faunas. The dividing line. — 646. Animals of these 
faunas. Mammalia. Rodentia. Insectivora. Birds. Reptiles. Fishes. — 
647. Faunas of the south temperate regions. Di^dsions, — 648. Faunas of the 
three southern continents. Comparison between South America and South 
Africa. — 649. Of Australia. — 650. Tropical faunas. By what distinguished ? 
18 



206 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

G51. The most perfect and the most singular types of all 
classes of the animal kingdom are found here. This is the 
region of the monkey tribe, the herbiv'orous bats, the giraffe', 
the elephant, the hippopotamus, and the tapir, with the 
whole family of toothless animals. Here also are the largest 
of the cat kind — the lion and the tiger. Among the birds 
are the parrots, toucans, and humming birds; of reptiles, we 
find the largest croc'odiles, and gigantic tor'toises; and of 
insects an immense variety of the most beautiful kinds. The 
marine animals, taken as a whole, are superior to those of 
other regions ; and groups of islands in the torrid zone are 
covered with cor'al reefs formed by the cor'al insects. 

— 65L Peculiarity of types. Birds. Reptiles. Insects. Marine animals. 
Cora,l insects. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MANKIND. 

" For thou hast made him a little lower than the angels, and hast crowned 
him with gloiy and honor. Thou madest him to have dominion over the works 
of thy hands. Thou hast put all things under his feet." — Ps. viii. 5, 6. 

652. Man is justly separated from all other members of 
the animal kingdom, and regarded as forming an order by 
himself, comprising a single species, exhibiting many vari- 
eties. The most inferior specimen of the human race is 
distinguished from any mere animal by a difference immense- 
ly great. 

653. He can subsist under the greatest extremes of climate, 
owing chiefly to the pliancy of liis constitution, although ob- 
taining much artificial aid. The Es'quimaux endure the cold 
between the parallels of 70° and 80°. The African subsists 
under the burning sun of the equatorial regions. And the 
European, accustomed to an intermediate temperature, has 
borne the rigor of the highest accessible latitude, and the 
fiercest heat of the torrid zone. 

654. He can adapt himself to very difierent states of the 
atmosphere as to density, though with a varying capacity in 
difierent individuals. He is not confined to any particular 
kind of food, but subsists, in different situations, with equal 
facility on a very varied diet. Vegetables are the chief food 
of the nations within the tropics ; animal food supplies the 
polar tribes ; and both contribute to support the inhabitants 
of temperate climates. He is thus fitted for a very wide 
geographical range, and may occupy regions that are physi- 
cally discordant. 

655. In high latitudes, where snow covers the ground 
through most of the year, and vegetation is scanty, entire 
tribes live on fish and seals. Towards the equator, where 
vegetation is most profuse, vast numbers thi'ive with no other 

652. Man distinct from the rest of the animal kingdom. — 653. Man in rela- 
tion to climate. — 654. To the atmosphere. To food. — 655. Food in high lat- 

(207) 



208 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

articles of support than cocoa nuts, bananas, yams, and rice. 
In the intermediate districts, the special region of the vari- 
ous kinds of grain, and where animal food can as readily be 
procured, the people subsist on a mixed diet. 

656. The principal physical differences observable among 
mankind refer to varieties of strength, stature, proportion of 
limbs, texture of skin, character of hair, color, and the form 
of the skull. 

657. The distribution of mankind over the surface of the 
earth, and that of the other organized beings, are not founded 
on the same law. We have seen that, in both the vegeta- 
ble and animal kingdoms, all the types go on increasing in 
strength and development from the polar regions towards 
the equatorial, where they appear in their greatest perfec- 
tion. But in the distribution of mankind there is a different 
law from that which governs the distribution of plants and 
animals. 

658. In the latter the degree of perfection is in proportion 
to the intensity of heat and other agents stimulating the dis- 
play of material life. They attain the end of their existence 
here. The law of their being is purely physical. In man 
the degree of perfection does not rest upon his physical or- 
ganization alone, but also upon the degree of his intellectual 
and moral improvement. Man does not attain the end of his 
existence here. The law of his being is moral — it is a law 
of development. 

659. We accordingly find the most exalted of the human 
race inhabiting those parts of the earth's surface which are 
most favorable to the growth and development of all his 
powers. These are not in the frozen regions, where his time 
and strength are exhausted in procuring a scanty sustenance ; 
nor under the enfeebling influences of the tropical regions, 
where the life of the body overmasters that of the soul ; but 
they are in the temperate climes, where the alternations of 
heat and cold, the changes of the seasons, a fresher and more 
bracing air, incite man to the vigorous employment of all his 
faculties. 

660. Blti'menbach classified the human family into five 
great varieties, marked by strong distinctive characters — the 

itudes. Towards the equator. The intermediate district. — 656. Principal phys- 
ical differences. Refer to what ? — 657. Fact observed in the vegetable and 
animal kingdoms. Law of distribution in the human races. — 658. Perfection 
in plants and animals proportioned to what ? Law of their being. Threefold 
nature of man. Governing law. — 659. Localities of the most perfect of the 
human races. The frozen regions. Why unfavorable to man's development ? 
Why not the tropical regions ? Temperate regions. Why favorable ? — 660. 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OP MANKIND. 209 

TYPES OF THE RACES. 




A a Caucasian. ^ B & Mongolian.' • C c Negro. 

18* 



210 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Cauca'sian, Mongolian, Malay', Ethio'pian, and American. 
But these varieties are limited by Cuvier to three leading 
types, founded on the conformation of the skull — the Cau- 
ca'sian, Mongolian, and Ethio'pian. 

661. The geographical centre of the human family is in the 
regions of Iran', Arme'nia, and the Cau'casus, where exists 
the purest and most perfect type. In proportion as we de- 
part from this centre in the three general directions of the 
lands the types gradually degenerate, and in the extreme 
points of the southern continents we find the lowest in the 
scale of humanity. 

662. The Caucasian race, the characteristics of which 
are, the regularity of the features, the grace of the lines, and 
the perfect harmony of the whole figure. The head is oval, 
with no part too prominent beyond the others. The hair is 
fine. The face is divided into three equal parts, by the line 
of the eyes, and that of the mouth. The eyes are large, 
well defined, not too near the nose, nor too far from it, and 
their axis is placed on a line at right angles with the line of 
the nose. The facial angle* is 90°. The stature is tall, 
pliant, and well proportioned ; the shoulders neither too 
broad nor too narrow. The length of the extended arms is 
equal to the whole height of the body. Though commonly 
called the white race, it is evident that color is not a charac- 
teristic, since they are of all shades, from fair and florid to 
the clear dark brown. 

663. The Cauca'sian group of nations includes the hand- 
somest, the most civilized, and the most intellectual portion 
of mankind. They inhabit all Europe, except Lapland, Fin- 
land, and Hungary ; they occupy North Africa as far as the 
20th parallel of north latitude, Arabia, Asia Minor, Persia, 
the Himalay'a to the Brahmapoo'tra, all India between these 
mountains and the ocean, and the United States of North 
America. 

664. The Mongolian race forms the second variety. 
Their characteristics are broad heads, prominent cheek 
bones, eyes compressed, wide apart, elevated at the outer 

* The facial angle is formed by a line drawn horizontally from the entrance 
of the ear to the edge of the nostrils, and another line from this latter point to 
the ridge of the eyebrows. 

Divisions of the human family. — 661. Geographical centre of the races. — 662. 
Characters of the Caucasian race. Head. Hair. Face. Eyes. Facial angle. 
Statiire. Shoulders. Arms. Color. — 663. This group includes what ? Coun- 
tries occupied by this race. — 664. Characters of the Mongolian race. — 665. 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OP MANKIND. 211 

comers, long black hair, and yellow or sallow olive complexion. 
There is a want of harmonious proportions throughout the 
entire person. 

665. The Mongolian group of nations occupies all Asia 
Minor north of the Persian table land, and north of the Hima- 
lay'a, the whole of Eastern Asia from the Brahmapoo'tra to 
Behr'ing's Straits, together with the arctic regions of America 
north of Labrad5r'. 

666. This variety includes the Toor'komans, Mon'gol, and 
Tartar tribes, the Chinese, Indo-Chinese, Japanese, Es'qui- 
maux, Fins, Laplanders, and Hungarians. 

667. The Ethiopian race forms the third variety. The 
distinguishing features of this group are, the retreating fore- 
head, prominent mouth, thick lips, flat nose, woolly head, and 
black complexion. They occupy all Africa south of the Sa- 
ha'ra, and half of Madagas'car. 

668. The Malay variety, being the fourth of Blti'menbach's 
classification, seems to have sprung from a mixture of the 
Mongolian with the- Cauca'sian. They have a very dark 
complexion, with lank, coarse black hair, flat faces, eyes set 
obliquely, projecting jaws, and a gaunt body. 

669. The Malays' occupy the continent of Australia, the 
islands of New Guin'ea, Van Die'men's Land, New Zealand, 
Chatham, the Society Islands, the Philip'pines, Formo'sa, 
Mindana'o, Gilolo, the highlands of Borne'o, Sumba'wa, and 
Timor'. In this variety are found some of the ugliest and 
most degraded specimens of the human family. 

670. The Ameuican or Indian race forms the fifth variety. 
They are distinguished by a reddish brown or copper color, 
long black hair, deep-set black eyes, prominent cheek bones, 
aquiline nose, and often by handsome slender formis. They 
inhabit the American continent from 62° N. lat., to the Straits 
of Magel'lan. The North American Indian has a marked 
superiority over the Indian of the south. 

671. Another mode of classifying the varieties or races of 
mankind is by the aflinity of languages. It appears that the 
number of peculiar forms widely diflJering from each other is 
very great, and probably is not less than 2000. A comparison 
of various languages, however, shows that many bear a family 
resemblance, which is exhibited in the circumstance of a large 

Countries occupied by tliis race. — 666. Tribes and nations of this race. — 667. 
Origin of the Malay race. Characters. — 668. Countries of this race. Malayans 
compared mth other races. — 669. Characters of the African race. Their native 
abode. — 670. Characters of the American or Indian race. Their native lands. 
The Indian of North and of South America. — 671. Another mode of classifi- 



212 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

proportion of their roots being common to the whole group, 
united with a general resemblance in grammatical structure. 
Nations, whose idioms have this affinity are considered as 
related in origin. 

672. One strongly marked family of languages consists of 
the dialects collectively termed the Semitic; (so named from 
the supposed descent of the nations who speak them from 
Shem, the son of Noah. ) To this family belong the Hebrew, 
the Aramean, including the Babylonian and the Syriac, and 
the Arabian, to which the Ethiopic is very closely allied. 
Another family of languages is the Indo-European, which 
includes various idioms of Europe and Asia. This is a most 
extensive group, and contains six branches, two of which 
belong to Asia, and four to Europe. — 1. The Sanscrit, and 
all its dialects in India. 2. The ancient Zend, and all the 
idioms now spoken in Persia and Armenia. 3. The Greek 
and Latin languages, and all the dialects sprung from them. 
4. The Slavonic, the origin of the Russian, Polish, and Bohe- 
mian languages. 5. The Teutonic, with the Gothic at its 
head, and comprising the different German dialects, the Anglo- 
Saxon, Danish, Swedish, &c. 6. The Celtic, comprising the 
Welsh, Cornish, Gaelic, Erse, &c. It is evident that these 
two groups, the Semitic and Indo-European, extend over 
the whole portion of the globe inhabited by the Caucasian 
variety; and through European colonists the European 
branches have extended to America and other parts of the 
world. 

673. In pursuing the study of geography thus far, we have 
found that the eastern and western continents are distin- 
guished, in their physical nature, by an assemblage of different 
and opposite characteristics. The Eastern World is the 
superior in the number of its continents, in the variety and 
richness of its structure, in its dry and extreme climate, in its 
excess of animal over vegetable life, in the number and 
superiority of its races of men, and in its being the primitive 
seat of civilization. The Western World is the inferior in 
the simplicity of its forms, in the moisture of its climate, in 
the preponderance of the vegetable kingdom over the animal, 
and in its being the domain of the red man. 

674. This inequality of the two worlds was only allowed 
for a while, for, as "all are but parts of one stupendous 

cation. — 672. The Seraitric dialects. The Indo-European. Extent of these 
two groups. —673. Characteristics of the Eastern World. Of the Western 
World. — 674. Fii-st impulse to mutual action. — G75. Man. His influence. 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OP MANKIND. 213 

whole," there must be mutual relations subsisting between 
them. The discovery of America by Columbus, in 1492, 
gave the first impulse to their mutual action through the 
agency of man. Every thing in nature seemed admirably 
adapted to carry on the necessary interchange which was to 
harmonize the relations. 

675. Man is eminently a social being, and the more he 
advances in civilization the greater will be his influence. 
Scientific discoveries and social combinations, which call 
into practice great social principles, exert a decided effect in 
the progress of mankind. Heifce we find the cultivated races 
extending themselves to the uttermost parts of the earth by 
emigration, colonization, and commerce. The advantages of 
colonization and commerce to the less civilized portions of the 
world, as well as to the more highly favored, are incalculable, 
not only by furnishing an exchange for manufactures, but 
by the attainment of greater knowledge of the earth and its 
inhabitants. 

676. " Science has never been so extensively and so suc- 
cessfully cultivated as at the present time. The collective 
wisdom and experience of Europe and the United States of 
America are now brought to bear upon subjects of the highest 
importance in annual conventions, where the pursuit of truth 
is as beneficial to the moral as to the intellectual character. 
The noble objects of investigation are no longer confined to 
a few, but are becoming more widely diffused among all 
ranks of society; and the most enlightened governments have 
given their support to measures that could not have been 
otherwise accomplished. Simultaneous observations are 
made at numerous places in both hemispheres on electricity, 
magnetism, on the tides and currents of the air and of the 
oceaiL, and on those mysterious vicissitudes of temperature 
and moisture which bless the labors of the husbandman one 
year and blight them in another. 

677. " Vain would be the attempt to enumerate the im- 
provements in machinery and mechanics, the canals and 
railroads that have been made, the harbors that have been 
improved, the land that has been drained, the bridges that 
have been constructed. It would be difficult to follow the 
rapid course of discovery through the complicated mazes of 
magnetism and electricity ; the action of the electric current 

Science and society. Progress of the cultivated races. Advantages of colo- 
nization and commerce. — 676. Present state of the world. — 677. Progress of 
the arts and sciences. Of geographical discovery. 



214 ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

on thp polarized sunbeam, one of the most beautiful of modern 
discoveries, leading to relations hitherto unsuspected between 
that power and the complex assemblage of visible and in- 
visible influences on solar light, by one of which Nature has 
recently been made to paint her own likeness. It is impos- 
sible to convey an idea of the rapid succession of the varied 
and curious results of chemistry, and its application to physi- 
ology and agriculture. Geography has assumed a new 
character, by that unwearied search for accurate knowledge 
and truth that marks the present age, and physical geography 
is altogether a new science. The spirit of nautical and geo- 
graphical discovery, begun in the fifteenth century, by those 
illastrious navigators who had a new world to discover, is at 
this day as energetic as ever. Neither the long, gloomy night 
of a polar winter, nor the danger of the ice and the storm, 
deters our gallant seamen from seeking a better acquaintance 
with this ball of earth, even under its most frowning aspect 
The scorching sun and deadly swamps of the tropics as little 
prevent the traveller from collecting the animals and plants 
of the present creation, or the geologist from investigating 
those of ages gone by. Man daily indicates his birthright as 
lord of the creation, and compels every land and sea to con- 
tribute to his knowledge." — [Somerville.] 



Exercises for Examination. 



678. Plants. — Is the distribution of plants on the earth's surfece a 
matter of chance or of design ? 

What is the one only condition fatal to vegetable life ? 

Which are considered as the mo^ important species of plants ? 

Into what classes are plants naturally divided ? 

Describe each class. 

Which class includes the greatest number of species ? 

What is meant by the Jlora of a country ? 

Where is vegetation most abundant, and why ? 

Give a description of those regions. 

What useful plants belong to the intertropical regions ? 

What characterizes the vegetation of the tempemte climates ? 

Is there any vegetable production within the Hmits of perpetual snow ? 

Which are the first plants that appear at the limits of the snow Hne ? 

What description of plants predominates in the arctic regions ? 



EXERGISES FOR EXAMINATION". 215 

What appearances of vegetation does a high mountain in the torrid 
zone exhibit ? 

"Where is the heath plant indigenous ? 

Where is the cactus ? 

What effect have mountain chains upon floras ? 

What is there remarkable in a New England forest in autumn ? 

For what are the Southern States of the Union remarkable in the vege- 
table kingdom ? 

Where is the i)ineapple indigenous ? 

What description of plants has been widely disseminated by man's 
agency ? 

Mention some particulars as to the origin of some of them. 

What is the highest northern limit of the successful cultivation of 
wheat, oats, and barley in both continents ? 

Animals. — What is the meaning oi fauna, as used in zoology ? 

Is there any relation between a fauna and its climate ? Between a ftiuna 
and a flora ? 

Mention the four great divisions of the faunas of the earth. 

What effect has cKmate in the polar regions upon animals ? 

What contrast is remarked in the tropical regions ? 

What class of animals has the widest range, and why ? 

What effect have the reliefs of a country upon its faunas ? 

Is there any limit to the range of marine animals ? 

Where do migrating animals belong ? 

Describe the arctic fauna. Its southern limit. 

How is the north temperate zone divided ? 

Give a general description of the temperate faunas. 

What remarkable fact is mentioned of the three southern continents ? 

By what are the faunas of the torrid zone distinguished ? Give some 
particulars. 

Mention the four great divisions or departments of the animal king- 
dom. Describe each. 

Mankind. — ^Wherein is man distinguished from the rest of the animal 
kingdom ? 

What constitutes the chief food of the nations within the tropics ? Of 
the polar tribes ? Of those in the temperate regions ? 

To what do the principal physical differences among mankind refer ? 

Why are the temperate regions inhabited by the most exalted of the 
human race ? 

Mention the varieties of mankind as classified by Blumenbach, 

What is Cuvier's classification, and on what is it based ? 

What part of the earth is considered as the geographical centre of the 
human family ? 

What change is perceptible in leaving this centre ? 

Describe the Caucasian race. 

What regions have they occupied, and at present still occupy ? 

What are the characteristics of the Mongolian race, and what regions 
do they occupy ? 

What are the characteristics of the Ethiopian race ? 

Describe the Malay variety. What regions do they occupy ? What is 
their rank in the scale ? 



216 ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

"What are the characteristics of the American or Indian race ? What 
portion of the globe do they occupy ? 

What contrast do the northern and southern continents present in 
relation to mankind ? 

Which are the two principal groups of languages ? 

What languages belong to the Semitic family ? 

Name the six branches of the Indo-European group of languages. 



PAET SECOND. 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

CHAPTER I. 

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 

§ 1. Political Geography defined. 

In Political Geography the earth is considered as the 
abode of the human family, among whom its surface is divided, 
and by whose agency it is subjected to various changes. In 
its physical aspects the earth remains the same from age to 
age ; or, if there be a change, it is unimportant in a general 
view. The seas, mountains, rivers, and coasts possess the 
same prominent features at the present day as in the times 
of Caesar, of Solomon, or of Abraham; while the boundaries 
and extent of nations have been subject to frequent fluctua- 
tions, and human society is ever marked by change and 
revolution. 

§ 2. States of Society. 

Man is formed for society. His reason, which distin- 
guishes him from the rest of the animal creation, could never 
be developed in a solitary state. A nation or people is said 
to be civilized in proportion as the social relations are ex- 
tended, regulated, and perfected. Various social conditions 
combine to produce this improvement ; they are literature, 
the arts, the sciences, and the Christian religion. That which 

' ^ _____«_ 

Analysis. — Definition of political geography. Physical geography treats 
of tl^e permanent ; political of the changeable. Man a social being. What is 
ciyilizatlon ? Conditions necessary to improvement. Foundation of security 

19 (217) 



218 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

gives security and permanence to these social conditions is 
the pohtical organization of society — the government — the 
STATE. CiviUzation, therefore, is an improved condition of 
man, resulting from the establishment of social order in place 
of the individual independence and lawlessness of a savage 
or barbarous mode of life. 



§ 3. Of Government. 

A State is a body of people, united under one government, 
and is variously denominated a kingdom, a republic, a com- 
monwealth, or a body politic. In every form of government 
there are three distinct powers to be exercised — the legislative, 
the judicial, and the executive. The Legislative is the law- 
making power, and is sometimes vested in one man ; some- 
times in a certain number of men, called the legislature, 
congress, parliament, or diet ; and sometimes this power is 
exercised by the people in general assembly. The Judiciary 
is that branch of the government which is concerned in the 
trial and determination of controversies between parties, and 
of criminal prosecutions. This power is usually confided to 
a distinct class of men called judges. The Executive, or 
power to administer the government, to superintend the 
execution of the laws, is vested in a president, king, duke, 
chief, or other titled head of the state. The executive officer 
is usually assisted in the discharge of his duties by a few 
persons chosen by himself, and styled his cabinet, council, or 
ministers. 

The three principal forms of government are monarchy, 
aristocracy, and democracy. A Monarchy is a state or gov- 
ernment in which the supreme power is vested in a single 
person. Such a state is usually called a kingdom, or empire. 
If the prince or ruler of a nation exercises all the powers of 
government without control, the monarchy is absolutp ; but 
if his power is defined by a constitution, or by fundamental 
laws, the monarchy is limited. In most monarchical govern- 
ments, the throne is hereditary ; that is, it is retained by the 
reigning sovereign during life, and descends, at death, to a 
member of the same family. An Aristocracy is a form of 

and permanence. Definition ot civilization. Definition of state. Various 
terms. Three distinct powers of government. What is the legislative power ? 
what the j\;diciary ? what the executive ? Aids to the executive. Three prin- 
cipal forms of government. Monarchy- Monarchy when absolute; limited; 
hereditary monarchy. Aristocracy. Democracy. Republic. Confederation. 



PRELLMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 219 

government in which the supreme power is vested in a few 
of the principal persons of a state, or in a privileged order. 
A Democracy is that form of government in which the people, 
collectively, exercise the powers of legislation, A pure 
democracy is rarely found, except in towns or very small 
communities. A Republic is a democratic state, in which the 
sovereign power is lodged in rulers and representatives 
elected by the people for a limited term of time. A Confed- 
eration is a union of several independent states, for mutual 
aid and defence, under the direction of a general government ; 
as the United States of America, the States of Germany, and 
of Switzerland. 



§ 4. Of Religion. 

Religion, in a general sense, is the reverence of man for 
some higher power or powers by whom all things are gov- 
erned. It exists in some form, however gross, in almost 
every tribe of r;iankind. The prevailing forms of religion are 
the Jewish, the Christian, the Mohammedan, and the Pagan. 

The Jews are descendants of the patriarch Abraham. They 
worship Jehovah as the true God, receiving only the Old 
Testament Scriptures as of divine authority. They expect 
the Messiah is yet to come. As a nation they have no country 
of their own, but are dispersed throughout all nations, yet 
remaining a distinct and peculiar people. In many countries 
they do not enjoy the common privileges of citizenship. 

Christians are those who believe in Jesus of Nazareth as 
the Christ, the Messiah of God. They acknowledge the 
Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as of divine 
authority, and as their guide in faith and worship. There are 
three great divisions of Christians — the Eastern or Greek 
church, the Roman Catholic, and the Protestants. They differ 
from each other in peculiarities of doctrine and modes of 
worship. 

Mohammedans are those who receive the Koran, or sacred 
book of Mohammed, as their guide in religion. Its author 
was an Arabian impostor, who lived about 600 years after 
Christ, and pretended to be the inspired prophet of God. All 
that is good in the Koran he drew from the Bible ; the re- 
mainder is his own invention. The Turks, Persians, Arabians, 

Definition of religion. Four prevailing forms. Jews. Christians. Three 
great divisions of the Christian church. Mohammedans. The Koran. People 
of the Mohammedan faith. Paganism. Principal systems of paganism. 



220 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

and Egyptians profess the Mohammedan faith. This form 
of rehgion is more correctly called Islamism. 

Paganism is the worship of idols, or false gods. It com- 
prises many systems, of which Brah'minism, Biiddh'ism, and 
Fet'ichism are the principal. 



Among the widely differing estimates of the population of 
the globe, the following is sufficiently accurate for compari- 
son : — 

North America, 35,000,000 

"West Indies, 3,800,000 

South America, 19,000,000 

]5urope, 263,500,000 

Asia, 626,000,000 

Africa, 68,000,000 

Australia, including Oceanica, . ~ . 3,000,000 

Total, 1,018,300,000 

Population ;according to the races of mankind : — 

Caucasian, 520,000,000 

Mongolian, 422,100,000 

Ethiopian, 56,000,000 

Malay, 8,200,000 

American, 12,000,000 

Total,. , 1,018,300,000 

Population according to the religions of mankind : — 

Jews, 3,679,000 

Christians, 261,921,000 

Mohammedans, 178,325,000 

Pagans, 574,375,000 

Total, 1,018,300,000 



CHAPTER II. 

DIVISIONS OF NORTH AMERICA. 
§ 1. People and Countries. 

The present population of North America consists of the 
white descendants of different European nations, negroes, 
Indians, and mixed races. The origin of the Indian race is 
unknown. It is certain, however, that this continent was 
inhabited by a people who lived long before the present 
races or tribes, and concerning whom neither "history nor 
tradition have preserved any very satisfactory record. Many 
evidences remain to prove the fact of their having existed, 
and that they had attained to a degree of civilization far 
superior to the present Indian race. Among these evidences 
are the remains of elaborately sculptured edifices, and medals 
of copper and silver. The various tribes of America, except- 
ing the Esquimaux, bear a strong resemblance to each other 
in physical formation, and thus indicate a common origin. 
Their peculiar characteristics have already been noticed on 
page 211, in Part I. They have been considered as an infe- 
rior race intellectually ; yet instances of advancement are 
not wanting, especially of those tribes occupying the Indian 
Territory of the United States, where they have attained a 
station in advance of all other known tribes. A large por- 
tion of North America is still in possession of the Indians, 
comprising the northern parts of Mexico, the western parts 
of the United States, and the N. W. parts of British America. 
Their entire numbers are estimated at more than half a 
million. 

The Caucasians who have settled in America belong 
chiefly to the nations of Western Europe. The Spaniards 
colonized Mexico and Florida ; the English the eastern por- 
tions of the continent from Florida northward ; the French 

Inhabitants of North America. The aborigines. Indian tribes. Parts 
colonized by the Spaniards. English. Danes. French. Dutch. Others. 
19 # (221) 



222 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

were the first settlers of the Valleys of the St. Lawrence 
and Mississippi. Numerous Dutch colonists settled at New 
York and New Jersey ; and to all these have been added 
Swedes, Germans, Swiss, Scotch, and Irish in great numbers. 
From such materials the great Anglo-American family has 
been formed, which is now rapidly spreading over all the 
habitable portion of North America. 

North America, including Central America, is politically 
divided into a number of independent states, and the coloni- 
al possessions of several European nations. These are, the 
Danish Possessions, French Possessions, Russian Posses- 
sions, British America, the United States of America, 
Mexico, and the States of Central America. 



§ 2. Danish Possessions. 

Area in square miles, 180,000. Population, 9400. 

Greenland and Iceland form the chief part of the pos- 
sessions of Denmark in North America. Greenland lies N. 
E. of the continent, having Baffin's Bay and Davis's Straits 
on the west, and the Atlantic Ocean on the east ; Cape Fare- 
well, in 59° 49' N. lat, is its most southerly point; the north- 
ern limits are unknown. The whole country is high and 
rocky. The eastern shore, north of the 65th parallel, is an 
impenetrable barrier of ice. The western shore is high, 
rugged, and barren, and rises close to the water's edge in 
cliffs and mountains. The coast is indented with bays or 
fiords, and interspersed with islands, of which Disco is the 
largest. The coasts and islands are the only habitable parts. 

Vegetation is almost suspended by reason of the intensely 
cold climate. In these high latitudes there is no night in 
summer and no day in winter. Coal is obtained on the 
Island of Disco. Among the animals are the reindeer, polar 
bear, white hare, fox, and dog. Seals abound on the south- 
ern coasts, and the sea, rivers, and fiords are plenteous in 
fish. Fishing and sealing form the principal occupation of 
the inhabitants. Groot Haab is the capital. 

In West Greenland there are thirteen colonies, fifteen 
minor commercial establishments, and ten missionary stations : 
the most northerly of the latter is Upperna'vik, in 73° 20' N. 

Result of this admixture. Political divisions of North America. Green- 
land. Its physical aspects. Coast. Vegetation. Day and night. Goal. 
Animals. Occupation. Colonies in West Greenland. Exports. Imports. 



DIVISIONS OF NORTH AMERICA. 223 

lat., and the most southerly is Julianshaab, in 61° 30' N. lat. 
The exports are whale oil, seal, bear, and reindeer skins, 
and eider down ; the imports are woollens, blankets, coffee, 
and spirits. The number of inhabitants is about 9400, the 
Danes and Norwegians constituting nearly one half. The 
Moravian missionaries have been very successful in convert- 
ing the natives to Christianity. 

Iceland is a large island, situated between 63° and 67° N. 
lat., and about 480 miles E. of Greenland, having an area of 
about 30,000 square miles, and 56,000 inhabitants. It is of 
volcanic formation, and is traversed by two ranges of Ice 
Mountains, of which the Orafajokel is the highest, being 
6405 feet. The volcano of Hecla, in the S. W. part of 
the island, is 5110 feet high, and is remarkable for the 
frequency of its eruptions. The general aspect of the coun- 
try is rugged and extremely desolate. The Geysers, or hot 
springs, form the chief wonder of this island, and are used 
by the natives for culinary purposes. The fisheries are ex- 
tensive, and large quantities of pickled fish are exported, 
as also wool, skins, and moss. The chief town is Reikid'vik, 
situated on the S. W. coast. 



§ 3. French Possessions. 

The only places held by the French in North America are 
the Islands of St. Pierre', Grand Miquelon', and Petit Mique- 
lon', which he S. W. of Newfoundland. They are used only 
as fishing stations for French vessels. 



§ 4. Russian Possessions. 

Area in square miles, 371,000. Population, 10,000. 

This territory comprehends the N. W. portion of the con- 
tinent, extending from Bchring's Strait eastward as far as 
the meridian of Mt. St. Elias, 140° 52' W. Ion., and from this 
summit south-eastward along the coast chain of hills, till it 
reaches the coast in 54° 40' N. lat, forming an area of about 
371,000 square miles. Several extensive islands along the 
coast are included in the Russian territories, the chief of 

Population. Missionaries. Iceland. Volcanic formation. Hecla. Hot 
springs. Trade. Chief town. French Possessions. Russian Possessions. 



224 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

which are Kodiak, Sitka, Admiralty, and Prince of Wales. 
The chief town is New Archangel, on Sitka Island. The 
people are mostly savages. A few Russians reside in the 
country, who are engaged in the fur trade. 



§ 5. British America. 
Area in square miles, 2,925,250. Population, 2,758,460. 

British America comprises an extensive territory, occu- 
pying the northern portion of the continent, between the 
"great lakes and the Arctic Ocean, and extending from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific. It comprises New Britain, or Hudson 
Bay Territory, and the provinces of Canada, New Bruns- 
wick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward's 
Island. Each province has a governor and council appointed 
by the British government, and a legislature chosen by the 
people. A governor general is also appointed. 

New Britain, or Hudson Bay Territory, is a vast region, 
extending from Baffin's Bay and Davis's Straits on the east 
to the Pacific Ocean and Russian Possessions on the west, 
and from the northern line of Canada and the 49th parallel 
far into the polar regions. It is chiefly a tract of ice and 
snow in the northern department ; but in the southern por- 
tion, along the shores of the lakes, it is swampy ; while more 
inland it is well wooded. It produces the fur-bearing ani- 
mals in great abundance. It is used by the " Hudson Bay 
Company," which was chartered by Charles 11. in 1670, 
merely as hunting grounds, from which to obtain supplies of 
furs for the markets of the world. There are probably up- 
wards of twenty different kinds of furs, the most valuable of 
which is that of the black fox. The other articles of com- 
merce are oils, dried and salted fish, feathers, quills, and wal- 
rus ivory. Area, 2,480,000 square miles. Population, 180,000. 
Capital, York Fort. 

Canada occupies a long, narrow tract of country, extend- 
ing south-westward from the Atlantic, along both sides of the 
St. Lawrence River, as far as 45° N. lat, and thence west- 
ward on the northern shores of Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, 
and Superior, comprising an area of 350,371 square miles. 
Population, 1,842,265. It is intersected by a number df 

Extent. Islands. Chief town. British America. Divisions. Government. 
New Britain. Hudson's Bay Company. Condition of the country. Canada. 
Extent. Physical aspect, llegion of its settlements. People of Canada East. 



DIVISIONS OP NORTH AMERICA. 225 

mountain ridges extending from the coast into the interior ; 
and between these lie extensive and fertile valleys. The 
most flourishing and populous settlements in the country are 
chiefly on the rivers and along the shores of the great lakes. 
This country was formerly divided into the two provinces of 
Upper and Lower, but is now politically united, though still 
differing in laws, customs, and manners. The people of 
Canada East are chiefly of French origin, but those of Can- 
ada West are British. The French Canadians are all Ro- 
man Catholics. 

The commerce of this province has steadily increased in 
extent and importance, and is principally carried on through 
the ports of Quebec, Montreal, and St. John. The exports 
are timber, grain, ashes, furs, and fish. Two extensive lines 
of canal ^ — the Rideau, connecting Bytown and Kingston, to 
avoid the rapids in the St. Lawrence ; and the Wellcmd, from 
the S. W. of Lake Ontario to Lake Erie, to avoid Niagara 
Falls — are among the most useful works in Canada. 

Quebec, the capital, is situated partly on a bold, rocky head- 
land, rising 350 feet above the northern bank of the St. Law- 
rence, between it and the St. Charles, and partly on the nar- 
row margin of the river below the rock. The principal part 
of the upper town is enclosed with fortifications which are 
considered impregnable. Quebec is situated about 340 miles 
from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and is accessible to the 
largest ships. Lat 46° 49' 12" N., Ion. 71° 15' 45" W. Dis- 
tance 317 miles N. of Portland, Maine, 169 miles N. E. of 
Montreal. 

Montreal is the largest and most populous city and chief 
seat of commerce of British America. Its position at the 
head of the ship navigation of the St. Lawrence, and near 
its confluence with the Ottawa, as well as its situation with 
respect to the cities of New York and Boston, necessarily 
renders it one of the greatest emporiums of Canada. It is 
situated on Montreal Island, in the River St, Lawrence, 169 
miles above Quebec, in 45° 30' N. lat, and 73° 25' W. Ion. 

Kingston is situated at the N. E. extremity of Lake On- 
tario, on the site of the old Fort Frontenac. Its harbor is 
well sheltered, and contains the royal naval station on the 
lakes. Toronto, lately the capital of Upper Canada, is situ- 
ated on a fine harbor towards the western extremity of Lake 
Ontario. The banks of the St. Lawrence between Montreal 

Of Canada West. Commerce. Canals. Quebec. Montreal. Kingston. To- 
ronto. Banks of the St. La^vrence lliver. New Brunswick. Location of set- 



226 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

and Quebec are lined with numerous pretty villages, which 
are rendered conspicuous by their large stone churches, with 
shining, tin-covered roofs and spires. 

New Brunswick. — This province consists of an exten- 
sive tract, comprising 27,700 square miles, the greater part 
of which is still covered with magnificent forests ; popula- 
tion, 193,800. It is bounded on the N. by the Bay of ^ha- 
leurs' and the E,estigou9he' River ; S. by the Bay of Fundy ; 
E. by the Gulf of St. Lawi'ence ; and W. by Lower Canada 
and the State of Maine. The principal settlements are along 
the St. John's PJver and its lakes. Lumber and fish are the 
chief articles of export. St. Jo/in, the largest town in the 
province, and the seat of an extensive trade, is on the river 
of the same name, near its mouth ; and 85 miles above it is 
Fredericton, the capital. 

Nova Scotia peninsula, with the Island of Cape Breton, 
together form one province, which is bounded N. by the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence, E., S., and W. by the Atlantic Ocean, and 
N- W. by the Bay of Fundy. Area, 18,746; population, 
216,117. An isthmus 9 miles wide connects the peninsula 
with New Brunswick. The Bay of Fundy is very peculiar; 
its shores on both sides are rocky and abrupt ; while near its 
head the tide, pressed and confined within diminished limits, 
rushes with much violence over extensive and wide-spread 
mud flats, and rises 60 feet or more perpendicular. The fish- 
eries are vahiable and extensive. Halifax, the capital of the 
province, is pleasantly situated on a slope of ground facing a 
fine spacious harbor, on the eastern side of the peninsula. 
It is the cliief naval station of Great Britain in North Amer- 
ica, and is the British North American station for the Cunard 
line of steamers, which run between New York, Boston, and 
Liverpool. Among the other noted places in this province is 
Annapolis, on the Bay of Fundy; it is the oldest settlement 
in North America, which was founded by the French in 1604. 
Pictou and Sydney are noted for their mines of bituminous 
coal. 

Newfoundland. — This is a large and valuable island, 
situated off' the S. E. coast of Labrador, from which it is 
separated by the Strait of Belleisle, 12 miles across. It con- 
tains a surface of 35,913 square miles, is very irregular in its 
outline, its shores being greatly indented. The chief re- 

tlements. St. John. Fredericton. Nova Scotia, and Cape Breton Isle. 
Boundaries of Nova Scotia. The Bay of Fundy. Halifax. Annapolis. Pic- 
tou. Sydney. Newfoundland. Fifehcries. St. John's. Most noted fishing 
ground. Prince Edward's Isle. Capital. 



SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 227 

sources of the population are in the cod, seal, and salmon 
fisheries, for which it has been long celebrated. The princi- 
pal fishing grounds are off the S. E. coast, called the Grand 
Banks. St. John's, the capital, is in the S. E. part of the 
island. Population of the island, 101,600. 

Prince Edward's Island. — This is a fine fertile island, 
lying in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, north of Nova Scotia^and 
New Brunswick, from which it is separated by Northumber- 
land Strait. The climate is milder than that of the sur- 
rounding British colonies. The soil is fertile, yielding large 
crops of grain. Area, 2134 square miles ; population in 1848 
was 62,678. Charlottetown is the capital. 



Suggestions to the Teacher. 

Voyages and Travels, performed in imagination by means of maps, 
are admirably adapted to make the study of geography of practical utility. 
In describing voyages, the pupils should be required to mention the waters 
sailed through, the general com'ses, the islands, coasts, and other promi- 
nent objects successively passed, whether on the high seas or coastwise. 
In travels and transportations inland, whether by raihoad, steamboat, or canal, 
they should specify the direction, distance, and the chief places which are 
passed on the routes ; and the teacher should communicate such additional 
information in connection with the several places as may serve to aid the 
memory by the principle of association. Then, as a valuable means for 
testing the knowledge of a class in topography, narrate to them, with as 
much minuteness of detail as may be necessary, a voyage or journey, care- 
fully omitting the names of the places, but at the same time requiring 
the pupils to note down the names in succession which your narrative may 
suggest. 

1. As an example of a voyage, take the following : Describe a voyage 
from New York to AspinwaU and back, in a steamship. We sail through 
the " Narrows " into the Atlantic Ocean, and, when we are sufficiently far 
from the coast, we shape our course southerly for the eastern part of the 
Bahamas to avoid the Gulf Stream, and pass between Acklin and Inagua 
Islands, then through the windward passage which separates Cuba from 
Hayti, and touch at Kingston, Jamaica, having sailed 1640 miles ; from 
Kingston we sail S. S. W. across the Caribbean Sea, 575 miles, to Aspin- 
waU, on the Isthmus of Panama, the whole distance being 2215 miles. 
Leaving AspinwaU for the homeward voyage, we take a N. N. W. course 
through the Caribbean Sea and Yucatan Pass, and round Cape St. Antonio, 
eastward, to Havana, the capital of Cuba, having sailed 1075 miles ; from 
Havana we proceed northerly through Florida Pass, and along the coast 



228 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

of the United States, to Sandy Hook and New York harbor, a distance of 
1260 miles from the last port, making the return route 2335 miles. 

2. The following is an example of steamboat and railroad travelling : 
A trip from Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, to Sandusky city, Ohio. We will 
now step on board one of the many beautiful steamboats which crowd the 
landing at Pittsburg, and proceed down the Ohio River. Our first stopping 
place is Steubenville, one of the most flourishing towns on the river ; 
thence we proceed to Wheeling, Virginia, which is situated in the centre 
of an area, 100 miles diameter, of the most fertile soil any where to be found. 
We next stop at Marietta, one of the first settled towns in Ohio ; and thence 
to Portsmouth, at the terminus of the Ohio Canal, where we find extensive 
iron factories, and people busily engaged in receiving and forwarding 
produce and merchandise. Our next place of landing will be at Cincinnati, 
where we shall leave the boat and take the cars for the remainder of 
our journey. Cincinnati is the largest and most commercial city west of 
the AUeghanies, containing more than 160,000 inhabitants. It is kid out 
with great regularity, and occupies a portion of two table lands, one elevated 
from 40 to 60 feet above the other. Steamboats are constantly leaving for 
Pittsburg, Louisville, St. Louis, NeAvX)rleans, and other places, fr-eighted 
with produce from the interior. 

We will now take the cars for Sandusky city. On our route we pass 
through a beautiful country, abounding in well-cultivated farms, with ex- 
tensive fields of wheat and com. At Xenia there is a raihoad which 
passes through Columbus, the capital, to ZanesviUe. Keeping on in our 
intended route, we pass through Springfield, Urbana, Bellefontaine, Kenton, 
and other places, to Sandusky city, which is one of the principal ports on 
Lake Erie. 

3. A narrative of a journey without naming the places visited : " On 
a small island at the mouth of a beautiful river is a very important com- 
mercial city. At its wharves sliips of all nations may be found, discharg- 
ing or receiving their cargoes, and its merchants hold intercourse with 
every part of the known world. Many who do business in this city reside 
in another city, a little to the east, and on the western extremity of a fine 
island. If we should ascend the river we should pass through a beautiful 
region of country, noted for its wild and romantic scenery, and should see 
at our left a place fi'om which fioats the American flag, to indicate that it 
is occupied as a military station. It was here that, a long time ago, in the 
days of the revolution, a man holding a high rank in the army arranged 
a plan to surrender to the enemies of Ms country the important position 
which had been committed to his command. And it was in attempting to 
pass from this place to the British army, that a young and gallant British 
ofiicer, with the despatches of the traitor in his possession, was arrested by 
men, who, though poor in purse, were too steadfast in their integrity to be 
bribed or bought with gold. Here, too, have been educated some of the 
bravest officers now in the American army, and some of the most able 
engineers and scientific men of whom our country can boast. Sailing 
farther up the river, through a pleasant and fertile country, but much less 
elevated than that we have left, and passing several pleasant towns and vil- 
lages, we come to a city which was first settled by the Dutch, and still 
contains many of their descendants. It is a beautiful city, is the capital of 



SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 229 

a large state, and is the terminus of a noted canal, once regarded as one of 
the most remarkable works of the kind in the world. Nearly parallel with 
this canal runs a railroad, and over both are every year transported im- 
mense quantities of grain, flour, provisions, and merchandise of all kinds 
which are produced or consumed in the surrounding country, or even in the 
£ir west. Above the last-named city, and on the same river, is another 
beautiful city, that bears the name of one which, centuries ago, when people 
beheved that the gods would come down to take part in the battles of 
men, was besieged for ten long years, and at last was taken only by 
stratagem. 

Now, what city did I first describe ? What name is sometimes applied 
to it on account of its size and importance ? On what island is it ? At 
the mouth of what river ? What city to the east of it ? It is sometimes 
called the " City of Churches." Why ? As we ascend the river, what 
mountains do we pass ? What miHtary station ? What institution there ? 
Who attempted to give this up to the British ? When ? Why ? With 
what success ? What British ofiicer is re/erred to ? What was his fate ? 
What became of the commanding officer of the fort, and by what name 
has he since been known ? Why is this place so important as a mihtary 
station ? What towns and villages above this on the river ? At what city 
did we arrive ? Describe it. What city a little to the north of it ? What 
ancient city is referred to ? What distinguished characters and heroes of 
antiquity took part in the siege ? By what stratagem was the city taken ? 
What was the cause of the siege ? What canal is mentioned ? What 
places does it connect ? &c., &c. 
20 



CHAPTER III. 
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

§ 1. General Obseevations. 
Area in square miles, 3,384,865. Population in 1850 was 23,191,876. 

The United States of America is a confederacy of 
sovereign states, occupying the middle portion of North 
America, between 24° and 49° N. lat, and 67° and 125° W. 
Ion., extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans, and 
from the British Possessions on the north to the Mexican 
republic and the Galf of Mexico on the south. The great- 
est length from east to west is 2800 miles ; its breadth from 
north to south is 1900 miles; frontier, 11,000 miles, of which 
4400 miles is sea coast and 1600 lake coast. The whole 
area is estimated at 3,384,865 square miles. The Union 
originally consisted of thirteen states, but now of more than 
thirty, together with the federal district, and several terri- 
tories. 

The country is naturally divided, by the Rocky Mountains 
and the Alleghanies, into three distinct regions ; the Atlantic 
declivity on the east, the basin or Valley of the Mississippi, 
in the middle, and the Pacific declivity on the west. The 
Atlantic border is indented with many important bays and 
sounds ; there are but few on the Gulf coast, but on the west 
coast there are several excellent bays, that of San Francisco 
being one of the finest in the world. Only two of the great 
lakes lie wholly within the limits of the United States ; they 
are Michigan' and Champlain'. 

The rivers of the United States may be divided into four 
classes : 1. The Mississippi and its wide spreading tributaries, 
which drain nearly the whole country between the mountain 

Government of the United States. Extent. Length. Breadth. Area. 
Frontier line. Natural divisions of the country. Indentations. Great lakes. 

(230) 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 2S1 

chains ; 2. The rivers east of the Alleghanies, which water 
the Atlantic terrace and lowlands, and thence flow into the 
ocean ; 3. The rivers flowing into the Gulf of Mexico, inde- 
pendent of the Mississippi ; and 4. The rivers on the west- 
ern slope of the Rocky Mountains which flow into the 
Pacific. In a country so extensive and diversified there 
must necessarily be a variety in soil and climate. 

The United States rank next to Great Britain in commer- 
cial enterprise. The foreign, coasting, and inland trade are 
all on an extensive scale. The domestic commerce may be 
divided into three branches: 1. That which is carried on 
coastwise, up the bays and large rivers, and on the gi-eat 
lakes, by schooners, sloops, and steamboats ; 2. That which 
is carried on chiefly in steamboats, but partly in flat bottom 
boats on the tributaries of the Mississippi ; 3. The overland 
trade between the Western and Atlantic States, by canals 
and railroads. 

The mineral resources of the United States are abundant 
and various. Coal, iron, copper, lead, and gold are inex- 
haustible ; as also granite, sienite, marble, sandstone, and 
breccia for building purposes. Although the industry of the 
country is at present chiefly applied to agriculture, the prog- 
ress of manufactures is daily increasing, and extending 
their limits to every part of the nation. 

The Government of the United States, as established by 
the Constitution of 1787, consists of a legislative, an execu- 
tive, and a judiciary department. The legislature is termed 
the " Congress of the United States of America^' and consists 
of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Senate is 
composed of two members from each state, chosen by the 
several state legislatures, for a term of six years. The 
House of Representatives is composed of members from the 
states, elected by the people, for a term of two years. The 
number of members from each state is in accordance with 
the population of each. 

The Executive power is vested in a President, who, with 
the Vice President, is chosen for four years, by " Electors " . 
from all the states. Each state appoints as many electors as 
it has members of Congress. The executive business of 
the nation is conducted by several officers who constitute 

Four classes of rivers. Diversity of climate, &c. Commerce of the United 
States. Three branches of domestic commerce. Mineral resources. Indus- 
try. Government under the Constitution. Congress. Senate. House of 
Representatives. Executive. Election of President and Vice President. The 
Cabinet. Secretaries, &c. Vice President. Judicial power. Judges, how ap- 



232 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

the President's cabinet These are, the Secretary of State, 
Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Secretary of 
the Navy, Secretary of the Interior, Postmaster General, 
and the Attorney General, each of whom presides over a 
separate bureau' or department. The Vice President is the 
presiding officer of the Senate. 

The Judiciary power of the United States is vested in one 
Supreme Court, and such inferior courts as Congress may, 
from time to time, establish. The judges are nominated by 
the President, approved by the Senate, and hold their office 
during good behavior. 

There is no national or established religion in the United 
States ; for it is expressly declared in the Constitution, that 
" Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment 
of religion, or prohibiting the exercise thereof" Every citi- 
zen is free to choose his own faith ; but the mass of the 
people adhere to Christianity, in some one or other of its 
forms. 

The general interests of the nation are confided to the 
general government ; but each state has a government of 
its own, with the exclusive control of its own local affairs. 
The territories are under the jurisdiction of the general 
government. 



§ 2. The District of Columbia. 

This District formerly comprised an area of territory ten 
miles square, on the banks of the Potomac River, about 120 
miles from its mouth. It was originally ceded to the United 
States by Virginia and Maryland, for the purpose of estab- 
lishing therein a federal capital and a seat for the general 
government. In 1846, the portion on the Virginia shore of 
the Potomac was retroceded to that state, so that now the 
District comprehends only the Maryland portion, in which 
are situated the cities of Washington and Georgetown. 

The City of Washington, the federal capital and seat 
of the general government, is situated on the east bank of 
the Potomac River, in 38° 52' 43" N. lat, and 76° 55' 30" W. 
Ion. It is laid out on an extensive and regular plan, but only 
a small portion of it is yet occupied by buildings. It con- 
pointed. Constitutional law with regard to religion in the United States. 
Of the general and state goveniments. Of the territories. District of Co- 
lumbia. Formerly. At present. The capital. Plan of the city. Public 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 



233 



tains the Capitol, the President's House, the edifices for the 
State, Treasury, War, and Navy Departments, the General 
Post Office, Patent Office, Smithsonian Institute, and Navy 
Yard. Washington is connected with the north, south, and 
west by railways, and is accessible from the Atlantic for 
ships of the largest class. 



§ 3. Sections op the United States. 

The states and territories of the Union are divided into 
five sections : the Eastern or New England States ; Middle 
States ; Southern States : Interior States : and Pacific States. 



Maine, 
Massachusetts, 



1. New England. 

New Hampshire, 
Rhode Island, 



Vermont, 
Connecticut. 



New York, 
Delaware, 



2. Middle States. 

New Jersey, 
Maryland. 



Pennsylvania, 



Virginia, 
Georgia, 
Mississippi, 



3. Southern States. 

North Carolina, 

Florida, 

Louisiana, 



South Carolina, 

Alabama, 

Texas. 



4. Interior States and Territories. 



Ohio, 
Michigan, 
Missouri, 
Tennessee, 
Kansas Ter., 



Indiana, 
Wisconsin, 
Arkansas, 
Minnesota Ter., 
Indian Ter. 



Illinois, 
Iowa, 
Kentucky, 
Nebraska Ter., 



5. Pacific States and Territories. 



California, 
Oregon Ter., 



New Mexico Ter., 
Washinsrton Ter. 



Utah Ter. 



Buildings. Communication with the city. Five sections of the United States 
and territories. — New England. For what noted ? People. Churches and 
20=^ 



234 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



Exercises in Voyages and Travels. 

Describe a voyage from Boston to New Orleans. New Orleans to Ha- 
vana. Havana to Norfolk. Norfolk to Montreal. Montreal to Halifex. 
Halifax to Mobile. Mobile to Vera Cruz. Vera Cruz to Kingston, Ja- 
maica, and from thence to Pensacola. From Pensacola to New York. 
New York to Port-au-Prince. Port-au-Prince to Galveston. Galveston 
to Quebec. From Quebec to Natchez. Natchez to Chagres. Describe 
the journey from Chagres to Panama ; and the voyage from Panama to 
San Francisco. 



§ 4. The Eastern or New England States. 

New England is that portion of the United States lying 
east of the State of New York, and comprises six states : 
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode 
Island, and Connecticut. This section is noted as being the 
most intelligent, industrious, and thriving portion of the Union. 
The people are benevolent and hospitable, conscientious in 
their worldly affairs, honest, and honorable. Their churches 
and school houses indicate their great principles — religion 
and education. In no other country has education been more 
developed. This is the great manufacturing district of the 
Union ; hence its rapid increase in wealth and population. It 
is also extensively engaged in the whale and other fisheries, 
giving employment to more than 35,000 men. The commerce 
of New England is very extensive. The soil of this section 
is better suited to grazing than to grain. Beef, pork, butter, 
and cheese are among the important productions. 

Boston is regarded as the commercial metropolis of New 
England. It occupies a peninsula at the head of Massa- 
chusetts Bay, and is encircled and immediately connected 
with the cities of Roxbury, Cambridge, and Charlestown, and 
the towns of Chelsea, Brighton, Brookline, and Dorchester. 
East and South. Boston form a part of its municipality. It is 
the focus of the railroad system of New England ; and, from 
the proximity and influence of Harvard University, it is styled 
the "Literary Emporium," — the "Athens of America." 
New Bedford on Buzzard's Bay, Providence on Narragansett 
Bay, and Portland on Casco Bay, are also important com- 

school houses. Manufactures. Fisheries. Commerce. Soil. Productions. 
Boston. Commercial towns. Manufacturing places. Railroad centres. — Maine. 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 235 

mercial cities in New England. Lowell, Massachusetts, on 
the Mer'riraack River, is one of the largest manufacturing 
places in America. Worcester, Springfield, Pittsfield, Groton, 
Andover, and Keene are noted railroad centres. 



§ 5. Maine. 

Extent, from 43° 5' to 47° 20' N. lat., and from 66° 49' to 71° 4' W. Ion. 
Area, 32,628 square miles. Population, 583,169. 

Maine is the largest of the New England States. It is 
bounded on the N. W. and N. by Canada East j E. by New 
Brunswick and the St, Croix Eiver ; S. by the Atlantic Ocean ; 
and W. by New Hampshire. It was first settled in 1626. 
The province was taken under the jurisdiction of Massa- 
chusetts in 1656, and so continued until 1820, when it was 
separated, and became an independent state. 

In the north and north-west the country is mountainous, 
and has a poor soil. Throughout the interior it is generally 
hilly, and the land rises so rapidly from the sea coast, that the 
tide in the numerous rivers flows but a short distance inland. 
The best land in the state is between the Penob'scot and 
Kennebec' Rivers, where it is excellent. There are numerous 
lakes in tliis state, which abound in fish, and multitudes of 
streams and rivers that afford many excellent mill seats. The 
coast is lined with islands, and indented with numerous bays 
and inlets, which furnish more good harbors than are found 
in any other state in the Union. The Penob'scot and Cas'co 
Bays are magnificent and of great extent. Other bays are 
Frenchman's, Englishman's, Machl'as, and Passamaquod'dy. 
The highest mountain summit is Mount Katah'din, in Piscat'- 
aqua county. The principal rivers are the Penob'scot, Ken- 
nebec', Androscog'gin, Sa'co, Salm'on Falls, Piscat'aqua, St. 
Croix, and the St. John's. The most noted lakes are Moose- 
head, Um'bagog, Seba'go, Schoo'dic, and Chesun'gook. The 
chief islands are Mount Desert, Deer, Long, Boon, and Fox. 
Extensive forest hills, covered with the finest of pine and 
other timbers, traverse the state in every direction. The 
great staple productions are lumber, granite, and lime. 

Augusta, the capital of the state, lies on both sides of the 
Kennebec River, 43 miles from its mouth. The two parts 
of the town are united by a handsome stone bridge. Lat. 

Extent. Area. Population. Comparison. Boundaries. First settled, &c. 
Physical aspects. Waters. Mount Katahdin. Rivers. Lakes. Islands. For- 



236 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

44° 18' 43" N., Ion. 69° 50' W. Distance 595 miles N. E. 
from Wasliington. .. 

Portland is the largest and most important city in the state. 
It is finely situated on an elevated peninsula projecting into 
Cas'co Bay. The harbor is deep, safe, spacious, easily 
accessible, and always open. Population in 1850, 20,815. It 
is 542 miles N. E. from Washington. 

Bangor, on the Penob'scot, 60 miles from the sea, is one of 
the pleasantest situated and most elegantly built cities in the 
Union. Its coasting trade is superior to most of the northern 
ports. Population, 14,432. It is 661 miles from Washington. 

Brunswick, on the Androscog'gin, is the seat of Bowdoin 
College. At Ord'no, Machi'as, and Cal'ais there are numerous 
saw mills, employed in sawing logs into boards and planks. 
From Belfast, Bath, Wiscas'set, and other places, immense 
quantities of lumber and firewood are shipped to other ports 
in the Union, and to the West Indies. Thomaston and 
Camden export lime. 

§ 6. New Hampshire. 

Extent, from 42° 41' to 45° 11' N. lat., and from 70° 40' to 72° 28' W. Ion. 
Area, 9411 square miles. Population, 317,976. 

New Hampshire is bounded N. by Canada East; E. by 
Maine ; S. E. by the Atlantic ; S. by Massachusetts ; and W. 
by the Connecticut River, which separates it from Vermont. 
The mountains, lakes, valleys, and cataracts of New Hamp- 
shire abound in sublime and beautiful scenery, and have 
acquired for it the title of the " Switzerland of America." 
It is also called the " Granite State." The White Mountains, 
which are of much celebrity, lie in the northern and eastern 
portion of the state, and are the loftiest in New England. 
Mount Washington, the highest summit, is 6226 feet in 
height. The " Notch " in these mountains is regarded as a 
great natural curiosity ; it is a deep chasm, afibrding a passage 
through which the Sa'co River runs. Other peaks are Moose- 
hillock, Grand Monad'nock, and Kear'sarge. 

Among the beautiful lakes in this state are Lake Um'ba- 
gog, on the eastern line, and Winnipiseo'gee Lake, near the 
centre, a highly picturesque body of water 22 miles long, and 
containing a number of romantic islets. The chief rivers are 

ests. Augusta. Portland. Bangor. Other towns. — New Hampshire. Ex- 
tent. Area. Population. Boundaries. Scenery. White Mountains. Mount 
Washington. The Notch. Other peaks. Lakes. liivers, &c. Extent of 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 237 

the Connecticut, Mer'rimac, Androscog'gin, Salmon Falls, 
Piscat'aqua, Sa'co, Ammonoo'suc, and Ashuelot. The only 
islands of note are the " Isles of Shoals," off Portsmouth 
harbor. New Hampshne has only 18 miles of sea coast, and 
Portsmouth is its only harbor. 

Concord, the capital, lies on both sides of the Mer'rimack 
Eiver, which is spanned by two bridges. Lat 43° 12' 29" N., 
Ion. 71° 29' W. Distance 474 miles N. E. from Washington. 

Portsmouth, near the mouth of the Piscat'aqua, is the largest 
and most commercial town in the state. Its harbor is unsur- 
passed, being capacious, safe, easily defended, and deep at 
the lowest tides. A United States navy yard is located here. 
Distance 491 miles N. E. from Washington. 

Hanover, on the Connecticut River, is the seat of Dartmouth 
College. Exeter, in the S. E. part of the state, is the seat of 
Pliillips Academy, one of the oldest and most respectable in 
New Hampshire. Dover and Great Falls are noted manu- 
facturing places. Franco'nia is celebrated for its iron works. 



§ 7. Vermont. 

Extent, from 42° 50' to 45° N. lat., and from 71° 33' to 73° 25' W. Ion. 
Ajea, 10,212 square miles. Population, 314,120. 

Vermont is bounded on the N by Canada East ; E. by 
the Connecticut River, which separates it from New Hamp- 
shire ; S. by Massachusetts ; W. by New^ York, from which 
it is partly separated by Lake Champlain. This state lies 
wholly inland. It takes its name from the Green Mountains, 
so called by the French from the evergreens which cover 
them. Vermont is more of an agricultural than a manufac- 
turing or commercial state, and is noted for its excellent pas- 
turage, affording subsistence to numerous flocks of sheep and 
herds of cattle. Wool is the staple production. Large crops 
of corn, wheat, and oats are cultivated in the Connecticut 
valley. The chief rivers are the Connecticut, Lamoile', 
Onion, Missis'que, White, and Otter Creek. The principal 
islands are North and South Hero, and La Motte, all of 
which are in Lake Champlain. 

Montpe'lier, the capital, is on the Onion River, in the 
northern interior of the state. It is in 44° 17' N. lat., and 

coast. Concord. Portsmouth. Hanover. Exeter. Dover, &c. — Vermont. 
Extent. Area. Population. Boundaries. Place. Name. For what noted. 
Productions. Rivers. Islands. Montpelier. Burlington. Other towns. — Mas- 



3S^ POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

72** 36' W. Ion. Distance 524 miles N. N. E. of Washington. 
Burlington, on Lake Champlain, is the largest town in the 
state, and one of the handsomest in New England. Its har- 
bor is one of the best on the lake, and is of easy access. 
Vermont University is located here. Some of the other 
principal places are Middlebury, the seat of a college ; 
Bennington, a battle ground in 1777 ; Brattleboro', in the S. 
E., on the Connecticut ; and Norwich. 



§ 8. Massachusetts. 

Extent, from 41° 23' to 42° 52' N. lat., and from 69° 50' to 73° 30' W. Ion. 
Area, 7500 square miles. Population, 994,514. 

Massachusetts is bounded on the N. by Vermont and 
New Hampshire ; E. by the Atlantic Ocean ; S. by the At- 
lantic, Rhode Island, and Connecticut ; and W. by New 
York. This is the oldest, wealthiest, and most populous of 
the New England States, and is the most densely settled 
state in the Union. The people are noted for intelhgence, 
liberality, energy, and enterprise. Though one of the small- 
est states, it is among the first in agriculture, manufactures, 
and commerce. Its colleges and public and private schools 
are numerous, and rank among the best in the Union. 

The face of the country is diversified. There are several 
ranges of mountains in the western part of the state, which 
are a continuation of the AUeghanies. They run along the 
western boundary under the names of the Taghkan'ic and 
Hoo'sac ridges, passing into Vermont as the Green Moun- 
tains. Saddle Mountain, 3900 feet high, is the most elevated 
peak. The White Mountains of New Hampshire range this 
state in the region of the Connecticut River. Their highest 
summits within this state are Mount Tom and Mount HoF- 
yoke, the Connecticut River flowing between them; and 
Wachusett, a single peak south of Fitchburg. The middle 
and north-eastern parts of Massachusetts are hilly and broken. 
In the south-eastern counties the land is level and. sandy. 
On the sea coast the soil is generally poor, but the rest of 
the state has a strong, good soil, well adapted to grazing and 
grain. 

The chief rivers of this state are the Connecticut, Merri- 

SACHUSETTS. Extent. Area. Population. Boundaries. Compared with 
other states. People. Means of education. Mountains. Middle and north- 
eastern parts.— South-eastera counties. Soil. Rivers. Bays. Islands. Val- 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 239 

mack, Concord, Nashua, Ipswich, North, Sangus, Charles, 
Mystic, Neponset, Taunton, Chicopee, Deerfield, French, 
and Hoosatonic. The principal bays are Massachusetts, 
Buzzard's, Barnstable, Plymouth, and Cape Cod. And the 
most noted islands are Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, Eliza- 
beth, Plum, and those in Massachusetts Bay. 

The valleys of the Connecticut and Housatonic, especially, 
have a fine soil, and embrace many flourishing and pleasant 
towns. The farms around Boston are literally gardens, from 
which the city is supplied with the finest fruit and vegetables. 
The principal agricultural productions are grass, Indian corn, 
rye, wheat, oats, and potatoes. Beef, pork, butter, and cheese 
are abundant and of excellent quality. Among the mineral 
products are iron ore, which is found in large quantities in 
Bristol and Plymouth ; marble and limestone, in Stockbridge, 
and other places in Berkshire county ; granite and sienite, 
in great quantities, are quarried at Quincy, Chelmsford, and 
other places. 

Massachusetts is not more celebrated for her manufactures, 
commerce, and fisheries than for the moral qualities of the 
people engaged in these departments of industry. The in- 
telligence, character, and happiness of the operatives are 
well known. This state abounds in beautiful cities, towns, 
and villages, and the traveller will observe every where 
witliin her borders a great number of churches and school 
houses. 

Boston, the capital of the state, is a large and wealthy 
city, situated on a peninsula at the head of Massachusetts 
Bay, m 42° 21' 27" N. lat., and 71° 3' 30'' W. Ion. Distance 
432 miles N. E. from Washington. It is the commercial 
and literary metropolis of New England. The city consists 
of thi'ee parts, namely, Old Boston, on 'the peninsula ; South 
Boston, formerly a part of Dorchester ; and East Boston, for- 
merly Noddle's Island. It is connected with Boxbury by 
an isthmus, with Brookline by a causeway, and with Cam- 
bridge and Charlestown by several bridges. It is the focus 
of the railroad system of New England. As a commercial 
town Boston is second only to New York. The State 
House is situated on Beacon Hill, the highest eminence in 
the city. Directly in front of the State House is the cele- 
brated " Boston Common." The most imposing building, on 

leys of the Connecticut and Housatonic. Vicinity of Boston. Productions. 
Minerals. Morals. Remark on cities, towns, &c. Boston. Connection with 
neighboring places. Sections of the city. Ilank» Public edifices, &c. Cam- 



240 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

account of its associations, is Faneuil Hall, which is held in 
sacred veneration as the " Cradle of American Liberty." The 
population of Boston in 1850 was 136,871. 

Cambridge, the seat of Harvard University, the oldest and 
most richly endowed institution of learning in the United 
States, is about 4 miles N. W, of Boston. The Observatory 
is in 42° 22' 51.5" N. lat, and 71° T 22" W. Ion. Charles- 
town is on a peninsula N. of Boston, and connected with it 
by three bridges. It is noted for the monument which com- 
memorates the battle of June 17, 1775. The United States 
Navy Yard and State Prison are located here. Flymouth, 
36 miles S. E. of Boston, is memorable as the spot where 
the " Pilgrim Fathers " founded the first permanent settle- 
ment in New England, in 1620. 

Lowell, on the Merrimack, is one of the largest manufac- 
turing cities in America. Upwards of 10,000 females are 
employed in the factories, many of whom devote their leisure 
to literature and the fine arts. Immense quantities of broad- 
cloths, carpets, and cotton cloths are here manufactured. 
Lowell is- styled the " Manchester of America." Population, 
33,833. There are also extensive manufactories at Law- 
rence, Waltham, Taunton, Canton, Ware, Springfield, Fra- 
mingham, Fall River, Fitchburg, Pawtucket, and other 
places. 

Salem, noted for its wealth and commerce, stands on a 
peninsula formed by two inlets of the sea. The East India 
trade is mostly carried on from this place. Newburyport is 
a handsome town near the mouth of the Merrimack. Ship 
building, manufactures, and the cod, mackerel, and whale 
fisheries are carried on here. Gloucester and Marblehead, 
near Salem, are considerable fishing towns. The cod fishery 
is extensive. New Bedford and Nantucket are extensively 
engaged in the whale fishery. Williamstown, Amherst, An- 
dover, and Newton are seats of literary institutions. Worces- 
ter, Springfield, Groton, and Pittsfield are railroad centres. 

bridge. Chaiiestown. Plymouth. Lowell. Other manufacturing towns. Sa- 
lem. Newburyport. Gloucester. Marblehead. New Bedford. Nantucket. 



I 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 241 



§ 9. Rhode Island. 

Extent, from 41° 22' to 42° 3' N. lat., and from 71° 6' to 71° 38' W. Ion. 
Area, 1340 square miles. Population, 147,545. 

E-HODE Island is bounded on the N. and E. by Massachu- 
setts ; S. by the Atlantic ; and W. by Connecticut. It is the 
least of the United States in extent of territory. It was 
founded at Providence in 1636, by Roger Williams. Though 
formerly an agricultural state, it now stands preeminent in 
manufactures. In the north-western part the surface is hilly, 
and the soil poor ; in the southern portion it is generally 
level, and is an excellent gTazing country. Along the shores 
of the Narragansett Bay the soil is very fertile. There are 
no mountains in Rhode Island. Mount Hope, in Bristol, the 
highest elevation in the state, and once the residence of the 
Indian king Philip, is only 300 feet in height. Narragansett 
Bay is a fine body of water, dividing the state into two parts. 
It is 3.0 miles in length and 15 miles broad, and embraces 
many beautiful islands. It is accessible at all seasons, and 
affords a spacious and secure harbor for vessels. The chief 
rivers are the Blackstone, Providence, Pawtux'et, Wood, and 
Pawcatuck'. The Island of Rhode Island, from which the 
state takes its name, is in Narragansett Bay. It is 15 miles 
long and averaging 3^ broad. Its climate and soil are excel- 
lent. 

Providence, one of the capitals, is situated at the head of 
NaiTagansett Bay, 30 miles from the sea. It is a very flourish- 
ing city, and is rapidly increasing in wealth and population. It 
contains an area of about nine square miles, which is divided 
by Providence River mto two parts, united by convenient 
bridges. The largest ships can come up to its wharves. 
Brown University, one of the best endowed literary institu- 
tions in the country, is situated on an eminence in the east- 
ern section of the city. Lat. 41° 49' 22" N, and Ion. 71° 24' 
48" W. Distance 394 miles N. E. from Washington, 

Neivport, the other capital, and next in importance, is 
situated on the S. W. part of the Island of Rhode Island. 
The harbor is one of the finest in the world. The beauty 
of its situation and the salubrity of its climate have made this 

College seats. Railroad centres. — Rhode Island. Extent. Area. Popula- 
tion. Boundaries. "When founded. Agriculture and manufactures. SoiL 
Mountains. Bay. Rivers. Island of Rhode Island. Providence. Newport. 
21 



242 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

town a place of fashionable resort for persons from the 
Southern and Middle States during the summer months. 

Smithfield is a flourishing town near the northern boundary 
of the state. Warwick is a large manufacturing town. 
Bristol, on the eastern shore of Narragansett Bay, has con- 
siderable commerce. Pawtuck'et is a manufacturing village, 
four miles north of Providence, on the Blackstone River. It 
is noted as being the place Where the first cotton mill was 
established in America, by Samuel Slater. This town is 
partly in Bhode Island and partly in Massachusetts. 



§ 10 Connecticut. 

E;xtent, from 41° to 42° 2' N. lat., and from 71° 29' to 73° 15' W. Ion. 
Area, 4764 square miles. Population, 370,792. 

Connecticut is bounded on the N. by Massachusetts ; 
E. by Rhode Island ; S. by Long Island Sound ; and W. 
by New York. It is the southernmost of the New Eng- 
land States. Numerous bays and inlets indent the south- 
em shore, affording excellent harbors. The surface of the 
state, though not mountainous, is traversed with several con- 
siderable elevations ; there are few level tracts. The great 
body of the state is excellent land, fitted for all purposes of 
agriculture; the best soil is in the valleys of the Connecticut 
and Housaton'ic Rivers. The other principal rivers are the 
Thames, Farmington, Naugatuck', and Quin'nebaug, all of 
which are celebrated for their shad fisheries. The principal 
productions are corn, oats, rye, hay, and potatoes. Almost 
every farm has one or more orchards, and great quantities 
of cider are annually made. 

The people of Connecticut have long been considered as 
a most energetic race. Her sons are scattered throughout 
the whole extent of the Union, carrying with them and dis- 
seminating their habits of industry and economy, and the 
cherished principles of their native land — " the land of 
steady habits." In every department of life they are found 
preeminent. 

Connecticut produces some valuable minerals. L'on ore 
is found in Salisbury and Kent. " Verd antique " marble 
is found at Milford, and freestone (red sandstone) exists in 
abundance. Manufacturing industry prevails to a consider- 

Smithfield. Warwick. Bristol. Pawtucket. — Connecticut. Extent. Area. 
Population. Boundaries. Physical aspects. Productions. People. Minerals. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMEEIOA. 243 

able extent. In point of commercial importance, Connecticut 
ranks third among the New England States. The principal 
exports are horses, mules, and dairy and farm produce. New 
York affords a market for^ the western portion of the state, 
and Providence for the eastern. 

Hartford, one of the capitals and the oldest town, having 
been founded in 1635, is situated on the west bank of the 
Connecticut River, 50 miles from the Sound. The city is 
beautifully located, and has considerable commerce, notwith- 
standing its inland situation. The first Deaf and Dumb 
Asylum in the United States was established here. There 
is also an Insane Asylum. Trinity (formerly Washington) 
College is located at Hartford. The " Old Charter Oak," 
so celebrated in history, is still standing, (1855,) and affords 
an object of interest to visitors. The trunk of this vener- 
able rehc now measures 21 feet in circumference. Lat 
of the city 41° 45' 59" N, and Ion. 72° 40' 45" W. Distance 
335 miles N. E. from Washington. Population, 13,555. 

New Haven, the other capital, is situated near the sea- 
coast, at the head of a small bay. It is a place of consider- 
able commercial and manufacturing importance, and one of 
the most beautiful cities of the Union. It is laid out in two 
parts : the old town and the new. In those portions appro- 
priated exclusively to residences^ almost every house has a 
garden in front, with flowers, vines, and trees. New Haven 
is the seat of Yale College, one of the oldest and most 
flourishing institutions in the whole country. Besides the 
buildings belonging to the college, there are many other 
beautiful public edifices. Lat. 41° 18' 27.7" N, Ion. 72° ^^' 
24" W. Distance 301 miles N. E. from Washington. Pop- 
ulation, 20,345. 

Norwich, at the head of navigation on the Thames, is the 
third city in point of population^ The falls in the river afford 
fine mill seats, where there are some very extensive manu- 
factories. New London, 14 miles below Norwich, near the 
mouth of the Thames, has an excellent harbor. It is actively 
engaged in the whale and seal fisheries. Middletown is a 
pleasant place on the Connecticut, 15 miles below Hartford. 
Its coasting trade and manufactures are important. Stoning- 
ton, Saybrook, and Bridgeport are among the noted seaports 
along the coast. 

Industrial pursuits. Hartford. The '• Charter Oak." New Haven. Norwich. 



^M: POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



Exercises in Voyages and Travels. 

Coastwise from Thomaston to Newburyport. From Thoraaston to 
Eastport. Railroad from Bath to Boston. From Boston to Portsmouth. 
From Montpelier to Boston. From Boston to BmrHngton. From Boston 
to Sprinfffield and New York. From Bridgeport to Albany. From Bos- 
ton to Albany. From Boston to New York, via Stonington ; via Fall 
River ; and via Norwich. A ship fr-eighted with lumber from Bangor to 
Hartford. Import into Boston a cargo of teas ; of spices ; of coffee from 
the Old World and the New. Lnport into Providence a cargo of silk 
goods; of ivory; of cutlery. 



§11. The Middle States. 



The Middle States are so called from tlieir geographical 
position. They are New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
Delaware, and Maryland. This section is bounded on the 
N. by the Great Lakes, River St. Lawrence, and the prov- 
inces of Canada ; E. by the New England States and the 
Atlantic ; S. by the Poto'mac River, which separates Mary- 
land from Virginia ; and W. by portions of Virginia and 
Ohio. It lies between 38° and 45° N lat, and 72° and 81° 
W". Ion. The advantageous situation, the diversity of sur- 
face, the natural facilities for intercourse, and the energy of 
the people, have unitedly elevated the Middle States to a 
high distinction among their sister republics. The staple 
})roductions of the soil are wheat, Indian corn, and tobacco ; 
the mines yield an inexhaustible supply of coal, iron, and 
other useful minerals. On the north and west the great 
lakes and the St. Lawrence form an outlet for commerce ; 
and the rivers flowing in a southerly direction convey to the 
Atlantic coast the products of the interior. 

The uninterrupted facilities which these states enjoy in 
their relation with all their sister states, and with foreign 
countries, will secure for them a continued and an increasing 
prosperity. 

New London. Middletown. Other towns. — The Middle States. Boundaries. 
Causes of distinction. Productions. Commercial advantages. Prospects. — 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 245 



§ 12. New York. 

Extent, from 40° 30' to 45° N. lat., and from 71° 56' to 79° 56' W. Ion. 
Area, about 46,000 square miles. Population, 3,097,394. 

New York is bounded on the N. by Lake Ontario, the St. 
Lawrence River, and Canada East; E. by Vermont, Massa- 
chusetts, and Connecticut; S. by the Atlantic Ocean, New 
Jersey, and Pennsylvania ; and W. by Pennsylvania, Lake 
Erie, and Niag'ara River. The first settlement was made by 
the Dutch, in 1615, on Manhattan Island, now New York 
city, and at Albany. 

Two chains of the Allegha'nies pass through the eastern 
part of the state. The Highlands, coming from New Jersey, 
cross the Hudson near West Point, and soon after pass into 
Connecticut The Cats'kill Mountains, farther west, and 
more irregular in then* outline, cross the Md'hawk, and con- 
tinue, under different names, along the western border of 
Lake Champlain. The western part of the state has gener- 
ally a level surface, except in the southern tier of counties, 
where the western ranges of the AUegha'nies terminate. 
The surface of the state in general may be regarded as an 
elevated tract, with numerous indentations and depressions^ 
which form the basins of the lakes and the valleys of fertil- 
izing streams. 

The principal rivers of New York are the St. Lawrence, 
Niag'ara, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehan'na, Genesee', Os- 
we'go, Oswegatch'ie, Black, St. Re'gis, Mo'hawk, Saranac', 
Salmon, Chenan'go, Tio'ga, Sen'eca, AUegha'ny, Cro'ton, 
Haer'lem, and East. The chief inland lakes are George, 
Cayu'ga, Sen'eca, Onel'da, Oswegatch'ie, Canandai'gua, Cha- 
tau'que, Skeneat'eles, and Crooked. New York is noted for 
a number of most magnificent waterfalls. The " Falls of 
Niag'ara" form the most stupendous cataract in the world. 
The river falls perpendicularly about 160 feet over the preci- 
pice. The chief islands in tide water are Long, Stut'en, 
Manhattan, Blackwell's, Gardner's, Shelter, and Plum. 

New York ranks first among the states in population, 
wealth, political importance, and public improvements. The 
system of canals and railroads is on an extensive scale, and 
of greater value than those of any other state. The Erie 

New York. Extent. Area. Population. Boundaries. First settlement. 
Mountains. Western part of the state. General aspect. Rivers. Lakes. 
Waterfalls. Islands. Rank among the states. Railroads. Canals. Prod^c- 
21* 



^il POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Canal is one of the most magnificent works of the kind ever 
constmcted ; it is 364 miles long, extending from Buffalo to 
Albany. 

The agricultural -productions are abundant and excellent. 
In the western section they are chiefly those of tillage, of 
which wheat is the staple ; the east is best adapted to graz- 
ing. The manufactures of New York are extensive. Every 
section of the state abounds in excellent water power, which 
is generally improved for manufactories, flour mills, saw mills, 
&;c. Cottons, woollens, iron, paper, leather, glass, oil, silk, 
cutlery, hardware, firearms, and carriages are the more im- 
portant articles. As a commercial state it surpasses all others 
in the Union. The banks of New York form one of its dis- 
tinguishing features, as they exercise a powerful influence on 
the financial condition of all the other states. 

Albany, the capital of the state, is situated on the west 
bank of the Hudson, 145 miles from its mouth. It is the 
terminating point of the Erie and Champlain Canals, and of 
several raihoads. It has a large commerce, and its manufac- 
tures are considerable. Lat. 42° 39' 3" N. ; Ion. 73° 44' 49" 
W. Distance 376 miles N. N. W. of Washington, and 164 
W. of Boston. Population, 50,763. 

The city of New York is in the south-east part of the 
state, on Manhattan Island, at the confluence of the Hudson 
and East Rivers. It occupies the whole island, and is 13^ 
miles long, with an average breadth of If miles. The 
densely inhabited portion of the city is at the southern ex- 
tremity of the island, where the principal business is carried^ 
on. In population, wealth, and commerce New York is the 
greatest city on the American continent. It is second only 
to London in the amount of its shipping. A very large por- 
tion of the imports and exports of the United States pass 
through it. The harbor of New York is one of the safest 
and most beautiful in the world, affording free ingress and 
egress to vessels of the largest class at all seasons of the 
year. 

New York is a world within itself Within the circuit of 
this " Empire City of the New World " are mingled people 
of every nation, Idndred, and tongue, exercising every art 
and profession known to man ; churches 6f every persua- 
sion ; people of all creeds ; institutions of every imaginary 
shade; and man in all his phases and in every condition. 
Lat. 40° 42' 43" N. ; Ion. 74° 0' 3" W. Distance 226 miles 

tions. Manufactures. Commerce. Banks. Albany. New York city. Rank. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 24T 

N. E. of Washington, 216 miles S. W. of Boston, and 86 
miles N. E. of Philadelphia. Population, 515,507. 

Brooklyn, the seat of justice of King's county, and second 
city in population in the state, is situated on the west end of 
Long Island, on the easterly side of East E-iver, opposite 
New York city. From the top of the " Heights " the city 
spreads over a gentle or undulating slope, for several miles, 
towards Gowanus Bay on the south, and Williamsburg on 
the north-east. Williamsburg is now a part of Brooklyn 
city. The ample limits of this city, and fine situation close 
to the business part of the great commercial emporium, with 
which it is connected by six steam ferries, render it a favorite 
residence for merchants and others who do business in New 
York. To these causes it is indebted for its rapid growth in 
population and wealth; and it is destined to attain incon- 
ceivable greatness. The harbor is deep and spacious. Along 
the south-west front of the city is the Atlantic Dock, a deep 
and capacious basin of 42 acres, which is surrounded by 
piers and bulkheads, containing a large number of substan- 
tial warehouses. On Wall'about Bay, at the north side of 
the city, is the United States Navy Yard. Here, too, is the 
United States Dry Dock. Population, about 175,000. 

Troy is on the east bank of the Hudson, 6 miles above 
Albany. It is a thriving city, and a rival to Albany in busi- 
ness and enterprise. Manufactures of various descriptions 
occupy a large portion of the people. Population, 28,785. 

Rochester is situated on the Genesee River, 7 miles from 
Lake Ontario, and 220 miles N. W. of Albany. To its vast 
water power and the Erie Canal Rochester owes its pros- 
perity and surpassing growth. In 30 years it has risen 
from a marshy wilderness to a population of 36,403, active 
with industry. 

Buffalo is situated at the east end of Lake Erie, and is the 
western terminus of the Erie Canal, A great chain of rail- 
roads binds Buffalo to New York, Boston, Albany, and the 
richest portion of the Empire State along the course of the 
Erie Canal ; and another, traversing the valley of the Sus- 
quehanna and Delaware, links it with New Jersey, New 
York city, and Philadelphia. The Lake Shore Railroad 
connects it with the vast network of railroads in the West- 
ern States. A large amount of capital is invested in manu- 
factures. Population, 42,261. 

Among other places on the Hudson, there is Poughkeep'sie, 

Harbor. A world within itself. Brooklyn. Troy. Rochester. Buffalo. 



248 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY* 

noted for its agricultural wealth ; Newburg, celebrated as a de- 
pot of butter and cheese ; West Point, the seat of the United 
States Military Academy ; Hudson, an old trading town ; and 
Sing Sing, the location of a state prison. Along the Erie 
Canal there is Schenec'tady, the seat of Union College ; 
U'tica, a beautiful and thriving town near the centre of the 
state ; Syr'acuse and Sali'na, famous for their salt works ; 
and Lockport, where the canal descends by five double 
locks. Among other noted towns are Auburn, the location 
of a celebrated state prison ; Geneva, the seat of a college ; 
Canandai'gua, remarkable for its wealth and beauty ; Sara- 
to'ga and Ball'ston, noted for their mineral springs. 



§ 13. New Jersey. 

Extent, from 38° 57' to 41° 22' N. lat., and from 73° 58' to 75° 29' W. Ion. 
Area, 8320 square miles. Population, 489,330. 

New Jersey is bounded on the N. by New York ; E. by 
the Hudson River and the Atlantic ; S. by the Atlantic ; and 
W. by Delaware Bay and River, which separate it from 
Delaware and Pennsylvania. This state was first colonized 
at Ehzabethtown, in 1664. The northern part of the state 
is mountainous. An elevated range, called the " Palisades," 
commences near Hoboken, and extends along the Hudson 
for miles, forming a perpendicular wall of stone, which at 
some points is 500 feet high. The middle is diversified by 
hills and valleys, and is well adapted to grazing and grain.. 
The southern part is level and sandy, and chiefly barren. 
The chief rivers are the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Pas- 
sa'ic, and Hack'ensack. The bays are Delaware, Newark, 
New, York, Raritan, Sandy Hook, Bar'negat, Little and Great 
Egg Harbors. 

New Jersey enjoys peculiar advantages from its geograph- 
ical position, which requires all the great lines of communi- 
cation between the north-east and south to extend through 
its territory. Farming is the chief occupation of the inhabit- 
ants. Garden vegetables and fine fruits in abundance are 
raised for the New York and Philadelphia markets. 

Trenton, the capital of the state, is situated on the east 
bank of the Delaware River, at the head of sloop navigation. 

Towns on the Hudson. Towns along the Erie Canal. Other noted towns. — 
New Jersey. Extent. Boundaries. First settlement. Physical aspects. 
Rivers. Bays. Advantages of situation. Chief occupation. Trenton. New- 



THE UNITEp STATES OF AMERICA. 249 

It is 30 miles N. E. of Philadelphia, and 60 miles S. W. of 
New York. Above the city, the river descends by rapids, 
or falls ; and at the foot of this descent it is spamied by a 
fine bridge, 1100 feet long, with five arches, supported by 
stone piers. The city is connected to New York and Phil- 
adelphia by railroads. Lat. 40° 14' N., Ion. 74° 46' 30" W. 
Distance 166 miles from Washington, 

Newark, on the Passa'ic, 49 miles N. E. of Trenton, and 9 
miles west of New York, is the most populous city of the 
state. In proportion to its population, few cities are more 
extensively engaged in manufactures. Newark cider has 
great celebrity. Population, 38,893. Princeton, 11 miles N. 
E. of Trenton, is the seat of the College of New Jersey. 
Jersey City, on the Hudson, opposite New York, is the com- 
mencing point of southern travel from that city, with which 
it is connected by two ferries. 



§ 14. Pennsylvania. 

Extent, from 39° 43' to 42° 17' N. lat., and from 74° 44' to 80° 34' W. Ion. 
Area, 46,000 square miles. Population, 2,311,786. 

Pennsylvania is bounded on the N. by New York and 
Lake Erie ; E. by Delaware River, which separates it from 
New York and New Jersey ; S. by Delaware, Maryland, and 
Virginia ; and W. by Virginia and Ohio. This state was 
first settled in 1681, by a colony of English Quakers, under 
the guidance of William Penn, from whom it derives its 
name. It is traversed from S. W. to N. E. by the Allegha'- 
nies in several ridges. On both sides of the mountains the 
country is either moderately hilly or level ; and the soil is 
generally excellent, and adapted to wheat, the staple pro- 
duction in agriculture. 

Pennsylvania ranks among the largest and wealthiest 
states in the Union, and is styled the " Keystone State." It 
is the great mining district of the United States, producing 
coal and iron. West of the mountains are vast fields of 
bituminous coal. The anthracite coal region lies between 
the Blue Ridge and the north branch of the Susquehanna, 
occupying the whole mountain districts to the south and east. 
The iron is used in all the machinery and cutlery made in 
the state, and is extensively used for railroads. The chief 

ark. Princeton. Jersey City. — Pennsylvania. Extent. Boundaries. First 
settlement. Physical aspects. Hank. Coal. Iron. Rivers. HaiTisburg 



250 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

rivers are the Delaware, SgMyl'kill, Le'high, Susquehan'na, 
Junia'ta, Genesee', Allegha'ny, Monongalie'la, Ohio, Clarion, 
and YoLighioghe'ny. 

Harrisburg, the capital of the state and of Dauphin county, 
is situated on the Susquehanna, 106 miles N. W. of Philadel- 
phia, arid 110 miles from Washington. Its situation is com- 
manding, having a fine view of the river and surrounding 
country. The fine bridge over the Susquehanna is 2876 feet 
long, and 50 feet above the river. A short distance below it 
is the viaduct of the Cumberland Valley Railroad, an elegant 
and substantial structure. 

Philadelpkia, the first city of Pennsylvania in population, 
wealth, and manufactures, and the second in the United 
States, is situated on a peninsula formed by the confluence 
of the Delaware and Sghtiyrkill Rivers. The city was laid 
out with beautiful regularity in 1683, by its illustrious founder, 
William Penn. The commerce and business of the city is 
on the Delaware side, while the Schuyl'kill affords pleasing 
landscapes and agreeable places of residence. No feature 
of Philadelphia is more striking than the regularity and neat- 
ness of its streets, its fine squares ornamented with shade 
trees and shrubbery, and its public edifices of great cost and 
elegance. The old State House, or Independence Hall, is an 
object of great interest, where the " Declaration of American 
Independence " was decreed and signed by the Continental 
Congress, on the 4th of July, 1776. Lat. 39° 56' 59" N., and 
Ion. 75° 9' 54" W. Distance from Washington, 136 miles 
N. E. Population, 408,762. 

Pittsburg, the " Birmingham of America," is situated on 
the head waters of the Ohio, at the confluence of the 
Allegha'ny and Monongalie'la Rivers, 297 miles west of 
Philadelphia. It is the second city in the state, and is 
especially distinguished for the bituminous coal beds in its 
vicinity, which supply fuel for the numerous manufacturing 
establishments. From its position, Pittsburg is a great com- 
mercial as well as manufacturing emporium. It holds to 
Pennsylvania the same relation as Bufl!alo does to New York, 
being the gate of commerce between the east and w^est. 
Allegha'ny City on the north, and Birmingham on the south, 
are suburbs of Pittsburg, with which it is connected by 
bridges and ferries. 

Lancaster is a beautifal town, situated in a pleasant and 

Philadelphia. The Delaware and Schuylkill sides of the city. Appearance of 
the city. Public buildings. Pittsburg. Suburbs of Pittsburg. Lancaster. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 251 

highly cultivated region, and is a thoroughfare between Phil- 
adelphia and the west. Reading is an agreeable place, and 
has considerable trade and manufactures. Pottsville is a 
flourishing town, which owes its importance to the coal mines 
in its vicinity. Carlisle, York, Chambersburg, Germantown, 
Easton, Bristol, Bethlehem, and Erie are other important 
towns. 

§ 15. Delaware. 

Extent, from 38° 27' to 39° 50' N. lat., and from 74° 50' to 75° 40' W. Ion. 
Area, 2120 square miles. Population, 91,532. 

Delaware is bounded on the N. by Pennsylvania ; E. by 
Delaware River and Bay ; and S. and W. by Maryland. This 
is the smallest state in the Union in respect to population, 
and, next to Rhode Island, in territory also. It was origi- 
nally settled by a colony of Swedes as early as 1643. The 
general aspect of this state is that of an extended plain, or 
several inclined planes, favorable for cultivation. Some of 
the upper portions of Newcastle county are irregular and 
broken. On the table land forming the dividing ridge 
between the Delaware and Chesapeake is a chain of 
swamps, which give rise to various streams that descend to 
either bay. Its manufactures, consisting chiefly of woollen 
and cotton goods, leather, paper, iron, gunpowder, &c., are 
its main dependence. Its flouring mills are numerous and 
extensive, and its flour takes a high stand in the market. 

Dover, the capital, is situated on Jones's Creek, about the 
middle of the state. Lat. 39° 10' N., Ion. 75° 30' W. Dis- 
tance from Washington 1 14 miles. Wilmington is the chief 
seaport and largest town, situated between Brandywine and 
Christiana Creeks, just above their junction. The finest 
collection of flour mills in the Union are in its vicinity. Its 
distance from Philadelphia is 28 miles S. W., and from Balti- 
more 70 miles N. E., with which cities it is connected by 
railroad. Population, 13,979. Newcastle, on the Delaware, 
a few miles south of Wilmington, has considerable trade 
with Philadelphia. 

Reading. Pottsville. Other towns. — Delaware. Extent. Boundaries. 
Rank. General features. Manufactures, &c. Dover. Wilmington. New- 



252 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 16. Maryland. 

Extent, from 38° to 39° 43' N. lat., and from 75° 10' to 79° 20' W. Ion. 
Area, 13,959 square miles. Population, 583,034. 

Maryland is bounded on the N. by Pennsylvania ; E. by 
Delaware and the Atlantic; S. and W. by Virginia, from 
which it is for the most part separated by the Poto'mac 
River. It is the most southerly of the Middle States, and 
very irregular in its outline. The first permanent settlement 
within the limits of Maryland was made on the Island of 
Kent, in the Chesapeake Bay, by William Claiborne, in 
1632; though it was regularly colonized in 1634, by Lord 
Baltimore, with 100 emigrants, mostly Catholics. Maryland 
is divided by Chesapeake Bay into two parts, called the 
Eastern and Western Shores. The land on the Eastern 
Shore is low and level. That on the Western Shore, below 
the falls of the rivers, is principally level, but above it 
gradually becomes uneven and hilly, and in the western part 
of the state it is mountainous, being intersected by the 
Allegha'nies. The chief rivers are the Poto'mac, Susque- 
han'na, Pataps'co, Patiix'ent, Elk, Sassafras, Chester, St. 
Mary's, and the Sev'ern. There is much good soil existing 
in every section of the state, but the most productive in 
grain and fruits are some of the limestone tracts in the 
western counties. Iron and coal of superior quality are 
among the mineral resources. The flour of Maryland is 
considered equal to the best in the market. 

Annapolis, the capital of Maryland, is situated on the 
Sev'ern Biver, three miles from its entrance into Chesapeake 
Bay, and 20 miles S. E. of Baltimore. The United States 
Naval School is located here. 

Baltimore, the chief city of the state, stands on a bay 
which sets up from the Pataps'co Biver, 14 miles from the 
Chesapeake Bay. It has an extensive commerce, and is 
one of the greatest flour markets in the world. Many of the 
public edifices are splendid and costly. Baltimore has been 
named the " Monumental City," chiefl}?- from the two great 
monuments it contains : the Washington Monument, 180 
feet in height, and the Battle Monument, 52 feet high, 
erected in memory of the patriots who fell in defence of the 

castle. — Maryland. Extent. Boundaries. Place. Shape. First settle- 
ment. Date of its colonization. Chesapeake Bay. Eastern Shore. "West- 
em Shore. Rivers. Soil. Productions. Minerals. Flour. Annapolis. 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. %B^ 

city against the British, in 1814. Lat. 39° 17' 47.8" N., and 
Ion. 76° 36' 39" W. Distance from Washington 38 miles. 
Population, 169,054. Frederick City, Hagerstown, Williams- 
port, Bla'densburg, and Cumberland are important as entre- 
pots of commerce. 



Exercises in Voyages and Travels. 

By steamboat from Troy to New York. By raiboad from New York to 
Dunkirk. From Albany to Buffalo. From Albany to Whitehall. From 
Brooklyn to Greenport. From New York to Philadelphia, via Amboy. 
From Philadelphia to Chambersburg. From Philadelphia to PottsviUe. 
From Harrisburg to Pittsburg. By canal from Albany to Bufifelo. Trans- 
portation of merchandise from Philadelphia to Pittsburg. Transportation 
of omnibuses built in Newark, N. J., to Boston. A cargo of coal from 
Philadelphia, to Lowell, Mass. Transportation of manufactured cottons 
from Lowell to Philadelphia. Import into New York, a cargo of logwood 
and sarsaparilla. 



§ 17. The Southern States. 

In this section are included the States of Virginia, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Missis- 
sippi, Louisiana, and Texas!' They lie between the Potomac 
River and the Ri'o Gran'de del Nor'te, and are bounded N. 
by Pennsylvania, N. E. and E. by Maryland and the Atlantic, 
S. by the Gulf of Mexico. They are all border states, open 
to the sea. The coast is indented with numerous bays and 
inlets, and lined with many islands and reefs, which render 
navigation difficult and dangerous. Excepting in Louisiana 
and Texas, there are very few channels sufficiently capacious 
and deep for large shipping ; hence foreign commerce is com- 
paratively limited. The coasting trade, however, is very 
extensive. The people are chiefly devoted to agricultural 
pursuits. The great staples are wheat, corn, tobacco, cotton, 
rice, and sugar. From the pine forests in the Carolinas and 
Georgia, large quantities of pitch, tar, turpentine, and lumber 
are obtained. The live oak timber of Florida is unequalled 
in quality, and is in great demand for ship building. 

Baltimore. Other places.— The Southern St a.tes. Boundaries. Bays. Is- 
lands. Foreign commerce. Coasting trade. Occupation. Productions, Pine 
22 



254 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 18. Virginia. 

Extent, from 36° 33' to 40° 43' N. lat., and from 75° 25' to 83° 40' W. Ion. 
Area, 61,352 square miles. Population, 1,421,661. 

Virginia is bounded on the N. by Pennsylvania and Mary- 
land ; E. by the Atlantic ; S. by North Carolina and Tennes- 
see ; and W. by Kentucky and Ohio. This state is often called 
the " Old Dominion," from its being the oldest English settle- 
ment in America. It was founded at Jamestown, in 1607. 
The face of the country, though exhibiting but little grandeur, 
is greatly diversified, and in some parts is rich and pleasing 
in the continued outline of hill, valley, river, and plain. The 
soil, too, is as varied as the surface, presenting eveiy grade 
of fertility and sterility. From the sea coast to the head of 
tide water on the rivers, embracing a tract over 100 miles in 
width, the country is low, sandy, covered with pitch pine, 
and is unhealthy in the warm season. Between the head of 
tide water and the Blue Bidge the soil is better, and the 
surface becomes uneven and hilly. The interior of the state, 
traversed by successive ridges of the Allegha'nies, running 
from S. W. to N. E., is a healthy region, and in the valleys 
are some of the finest lands in the state. The country west 
of the mountains, towards the Ohio Biver, is rough and wild, 
with occasional fertile tracts, but rich as a mineral region. 

The chief rivers are the Poto'mac, James, Shenando'ah, 
Bappahan'nock, York, Appomat'tox, Ohio, Great and Little 
Kanaw'ha, Sandy, and Monongahe'la. Drummond Lake, in 
Dismal Swamp, serves as a feeder to the canal. The staple 
productions of agriculture are tobacco, wheat, and corn. The 
mines of coal, iron, gold, and salt are exceedingly valuable, 
and among the mountains there are celebrated mineral 
springs. Virginia has given birth to many eminent patriots, 
statesmen, and warriors, among whom were Washington, 
Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and Chief Justice Marshall. 

Richmond, the capital of the state, is beautifully situated 
on the James Biver, 150 miles from its mouth, and imme- 
diately below the falls. It is a great commercial depot, having 
an extensive back country, abounding in tobacco, wheat, 
hemp, and coal. Lat. 37° 32' 17'' N., Ion. 77° 27' 28" W. 



forests. Live oak timber. — Virginia. Extent. Boundaries. First settle- 
ment. Surface. Soil. Lowlands. Terrace. Highlands. West of the moun- 
tains. Rivers, &c. Productions. Mines. Springs. Eminent men. Rich- 
mond. Norfolk. Petersburg and Fredericksburg. Wheeling. Yorktown. 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 255 

Distance from Washington 122 miles, south. Population, 
27,482. 

NorfoUc is the principal seaport. It is situated in the S. E. 
part of the state, on the Ehzabeth River, a few miles from 
its entrance into Hampton Roads, and 217 miles S. S. W. of 
Washington. It has a safe and commodious harbor. At 
Gosport, near Portsmouth, on the west side of Elizabeth 
River, is a navy yard, with a dry dock built of hewn granite. 
Population, 14,326. 

Petersburg, on the Appomat'tox, and Fredericksburg, on the 
Rappahan'nock, are important places of trade. Wheeling, 
on the Ohio, is a large manufacturing town. Yorktown, on 
York River, is memorable for the surrender of Lord Com- 
wallis and the British army in 1781. Mount Vernon, on 
the western shore of the Potomac, 15 miles from Washington, 
is venerated as the former residence and last resting-place 
of the Immortal Washington. 



§ 19. North Carolina. 

Extent, from 33° 53' to 36° 33' N. lat., and from 75° 45' to 84° W. Ion. 
Area, 43,800 square miles. Population, 868,903. 

North Carolina is bounded on the N. by Virginia; E. by 
the Atlantic ; S. by South Carolina ; and W. by Tennessee. 
This state was first settled at Albemarle, by emigrants from 
Virginia, between 1640 and 1650. Along the whole coast 
is a narrow ridge of sand, separated from the main land in 
some places by narrow sounds, in others by broad bays. 
The passages and inlets through it are shallow and dangerous. 
O'cracoke Inlet is the only one north of Cape Fear through 
which vessels can pass. In the maritime counties the land 
is low, and covered with extensive marshes and swamps, 
and for 60 miles inland is a dead level, generally sandy, and 
covered with forests of pitch pine. Above the falls of the 
rivers the country becomes uneven, and the soil more fertile. 
In the western part of the state is an elevated plateau, and 
some high ranges of the Allegha'nies. Black Mountain, the 
highest summit in the United States east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, is 6476 feet high. 

The chief rivers are the Chowan', Roanoke', Tar, Neuse, 

Mount Vernon. — North Carolina. Extent, &c. Boundaries. Settlement. 
Peculiarity of the sea coast. Ocracoke Inlet. Maritime counties. Above the 
falls. Western parts. Black Mountain. Rivers. Sounds and bays. Capes. 



256 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Cape Fear, Cataw'ba, Broad, Yad'kin, and Pamlico. The 
principal sounds and bays are Pamlico and Albemarle', 
Onslow and Ealeigh. Capes Lookout and Fear are much 
dreaded by mariners ; and Cape Hat'teras is the most dan- 
gerous headland on the American coast. The gold region 
of North Carolina lies on both sides of the Blue Ridge, in the 
S. W. part of the state. In the swamps rice of a fine quality 
grows in abundance. Cotton, tobacco, and rice are the staple 
productions. The pine forests of North Carolina yield nearly 
the whole quantity of turpentine, tar, and rosin in the United 
States. The upper country produces wheat and other grains, 
with hemp and flax. 

Raleigh, the capital, is situated in the centre of the state, 
near the River Neuse. Lat. 35° 47' N., Ion. 78° 48' W. Dis- 
tance 286 miles from Washington. Wilmington, the largest 
town and chief seaport, is situated on Cape Fear River, 35 
miles from the sea. Fayetteville, near the west branch of 
Cape Fear River, is second in population, and is better sit- 
uated and provided with facilities for trade, than any other 
town in the state. 

§ 20. South Carolina. 

Extent, from 32° 2' to 35° 10' N, lat., and from 78° 24' to 83° 30' W. Ion. 
Area, 28,200 square miles. Population, 668,507. 

South Carolina is bounded on the N. and N. E. by North 
Carolina ; S. E. by the Atlantic ; and S. W. by the Savannah 
River, which separates it from Georgia. This state was first 
settled, at Old Charleston, in 1670. The present city of 
Charleston was begun ten years later. South Carolina is 
triangular in its outline. The sea coast is bordered with a 
chain of fertile islands. The low country, extending from 80 
to 100 miles inland, is covered with forests of pine barrens, 
interspersed with marshes and swamps, which form excellent 
plantations. Beyond this is the middle country, extending 
50 to 60 miles in breadth. It is composed of numerous ridges 
of sand hills, presenting an undulating appearance. Further 
inland the mountains become abrupt, but on advancing the 
country displays an elevated plateau, called the Upper Coun- 
try, succeeded by a fine district of hills and dales. The Blue 
Ridge passes along the N. W. border of the state. 

Gold region. Rice. Other productions. Upper country. Raleigh, Wilming- 
ton. Fayetteville. — South Carolina. Extent, &c. Settlement. Shape. 
Coast. Low country. Middle country. Upper country. Mountains. Rivers. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 257 

The chief rivers are the Savannah, Pedee', Black, San- 
tee', Cooper, Ashley, Sto'no, arid Edisto. On the coast 
are Bull's and Wingaw' Bay^, Port Royal and Georgetown 
entrances, and Tyree and St. Plelena Sounds. Cotton and 
rice are the staple productions of South Carolina, but the soil 
and climate are well adapted to tobacco and indigo. The 
climate of the upper country is healthy at all seasons ; but in 
the low country it is sickly during the summer months. 

Columbia, the capital of the state, is a pleasant village, sit- 
uated on the Congaree River, below the confluence of the 
Broad and SaWda Rivers, and 120 miles N. W. of Charleston. 
Here is located the College of South Carolina, a flourishing 
institution, which is liberally supported by the state. Lat. 
33° 51' N., Ion. 81° 1' W. Distance from Washington 500 
miles. 

Omrleston, the principal commercial city of South Carolina, 
occupies a point of land formed by the confluence of Ashley 
and Cooper Rivers, which together enter the ocean by a 
spacious and deep harbor, extending seven miles below the 
city. Charleston may be considered as the metropolis of the 
Southern Atlantic States. Into it flow many of the produc- 
•tions of North Carolina and Georgia. Its foreign commerce 
is extensive and valuable, as is also its coasting trade. Lat. 
32° 46' 33" K, Ion. 79° 55' 38" W. Distance from Washington 
544 miles. Population, 42,985. Hamburg, on the Savannah, 
opposite Augusta, is connected with Charleston by railroad. 



§ 21. Georgia. 

Extent, from 30° 19' to 35° N. lat., and from 80° 50' to 85° 40' W. Ion. 
Area, 61,500 square miles. Population, 905,999. 

Georgia is bounded on the N. by Tennessee and North 
Carolina; N. E. by South Carolina; S. E. by the Atlantic; 
S. by Florida ; and W. by Alabama. This is the most south- 
erly of the " original thirteen states," and was first settled in 
1733, at Savannah, by a colony from England, under Gen- 
eral James O'glethorpe. The topography of Georgia, both as 
it regards the arrangement of its coast and the whole inland 
country, is very similar to that of South Carolina ; and the 
staple productions are the same, with the addition of some 
tropical fruits, as figs, oranges, lemons, &c. Oak and pine 

Bays, &c. Productions. Climate. Columbia. Charleston. Hamburg. — 
Georgia. Extent, &c. Boundaries. Place and settlement. Topography. 

22* 



258 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

timber abound in the forests. The Sea Islands, so cele- 
brated for the beautiful texture of their cotton, are Tybee', 
Os'sabaw, St. Catharine's, Sapel'lo, St. Simon's, and Cum- 
berland. The principal rivers are Savannah, Ogee'chee, 
Altamaha', Satil'la, Ocmurgee, Oco'nee, St. Mary's, Flint, 
Chattahoo'chee, Tallapoo'sa, and Coo'sa. 

MiUedgeville, the capital of the State of Georgia, is situ- 
ated at the head of steamboat navigation on Oco'nee River, 
300 miles from the sea. It stands on elevated ground, in 
the midst of a rich and populous cotton -growing region. Lat. 
33° 1' 20" N., Ion. 83° 19' 45'' W. Distance from Washing- 
ton 642 miles. 

Savannah is the largest and most important city of Geor- 
gia. It is situated on the south bank of the Savannah River, 
17 miles from the sea. It has an excellent hStrbor, with a 
safe and easy entrance from the ocean. Late improvements 
in railroads and other channels of communication have added 
largely to its growth and prosperity. Lat. 32° 4' 53" N., Ion. 
81° 6' U" W. Distance from Washington 662 miles. Pop- 
ulation, 16,060. 

Augusta, on the Savannah River, below the falls, and 
125 miles above Savannah city, is an entrepot for the produce 
of a large district, being connected by railroads with impor- 
tant points in the adjacent states. Macon, Columbus, Da- 
rien, and Athens are noted towns. 



§ 22. Florida. 

Extent, from 25° to 31° N. lat., and from 80° to 87° 30' W. Ion. 
Area, 53,786 square miles. Population, 87,401. 

Florida is bounded on the N. by Georgia and Alabama ; 
E. by the Atlantic ; S. and W. by the Gulf of Mexico ; and 
W. by Alabama. This is the most south-easterly state of 
the Union; the greater part of it is a peninsula, extend- 
ing south between the waters of the Atlantic and Gulf of 
Mexico. The United States government purchased this ter- 
ritory of Spain in 1819 ; and in 1845 it was made one of the 
states of the Union. Florida is noted for its luxuriant vege- 
tation, and the brilliant colors of its flowering shrubs. The 
coast, indented with bays and lagoons, extends nearly 1200 

Productions. The Sea Islands. Rivers. MiUedgeville. Savannah. Augusta. 
Other towns. — Florida. Extent, &c. Boundaries. Relative situation, &c. 
For "What noted? Bays, Lagoons. Surface. Southern portion. Northern. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. iS# 

miles. The surface is generally level, and but little elevated 
above the ocean. The southern portion of the state presents 
singular alternations of savannas, hummocks, lakes, and 
grass ponds, called collectively " everglades," which extend 
from Cape Sable into the heart of the country for several 
hundred miles. Okeecho'bee Lake is included in this tract. 
The northern part of the state has a diversity of surface. 
The soil is generally sandy except in the hummocks. These 
hummocks consist of a reddish yellow or black clay mixed 
with sand, and vary in extent, from a few acres to several 
miles, ^nd constitute no small part of the peninsula. An- 
other portion consists of " pine barrens," where the soil is 
poor. The soil in many parts is well adapted to the growth 
of cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, and tropical fruits. The for- 
ests produce an abundance of live oak timber, cedar, and 
yellow pine. Turtle and other fisheries are carried on eX' 
tensively among the Keys. Granite is quarried to some 
extent. 

Tallahas'see, the capital, is situated in the midst of a fer- 
tile and undulating region, upon elevated ground, in the 
northern part of the state. Lat. 30° 28' N., Ion. 84° 36' W. 
Distance from Washington, 896 miles. Twenty miles south 
of Tallahas'see is St. Mark's, on the Gulf of Mexico, where 
ships discharge their cargoes bound for the capital, to which 
they are conveyed by railroad. 

Pensacola, the most westerly town in Florida, is situated 
on a bay of the same name, about 10 miles from the Gulf 
of Mexico. It is the principal port of entry and city in the 
state. One of the United States navy yards is located 
here. Lat. 30° 24' N., Ion. 87° 10' 12" W. Distance from 
Washington 1050 miles. 

Key West, one of the islets at the southern extremity 
of the peninsula, has a fine harbor, and is the seat of the 
Wrecker's Court, to whose decision all cases of salvage 
are submitted. It contains a military station of the United 
States. 

St. Augustine', the oldest town in the United States, hav- 
ing been settled in 1564, is situated two miles from the Atlantic, 
on the south side of a peninsula, and is protected from the 
ocean by Anastasia Island. It enjoys a pure and healthful 
climate. 

Hummocks. Soil. Productions. Fisheries, &c. Tallahassee. Pensacola. 
Key West. St. Augustine. —Alabama. Extent, &c. Boundaries. Face of 



260 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 23. Alabama. 

Extent, from 30° 17' to 35° N. lat., and from 84° 58' to 88° 26' W. Ion. 
Area, 50,781 square miles. Population, 771,671. 

Alabama is bounded on the N. by Tennessee ; E. by- 
Georgia ; S. by Florida and the Gulf of Mexico ; and 
W. by Mississippi State. It was admitted into the Union 
in 1820. The northern parts of the state are mountainous, 
being crossed by the S. W. extremity of the Allegha'nies. 
In the south the country is generally level. The two divis- 
ions differ essentially in soil, climate, and natural productions. 
The north has a fine fertile soil, and the hills and mountains 
are covered with immense forests of oak, hickory, ash, elm, 
cedar, and poplar. The central region is comparatively 
sterile, and covered with pine. Forests of cypress, gum, 
swamp oak, holly, and live oak diversify the south, and the 
soil is rich, deep, and well adapted to the growth of cotton, 
sugar, rice, tobacco, and tropical fruits. Alabama has an 
extensive foreign commerce. 

Mobile, the principal city and only port of entry in Ala- 
bama, is situated 30 miles north of the Gulf of Mexico, on 
Mobile Bay. It has a good harbor, though difficult of access, 
being obstructed by marshy islands and shoals. Vast quan- 
tities of cotton are annually exported. Lat. 30° 41' 26" N., 
Ion. 88° 1' 29" W. Distance from Washington 1033 miles. 
Population, 20,514. 

Montgomery, the capital, is on the Alabama River, at the 
head of steamboat navigation. It is the centre of an exten- 
sive trade in cotton. Distance from Mobile 220 miles N. 
E. Tuscaloo'sa, formerly the capital, is on the Black War- 
rior River. The University of Alabama is located here. 



§ 24. MississipPL 

Extent, from 30° 10' to 35° N. lat., and from 88° 10' to 91° 35' W. Ion. 
Area, 47,114: square miles. Population, 606,555. 

Mississippi is bounded on the N. by Tennessee ; E. 
by Alabama ; S. by the Gulf of Mexico and Louisiana ; 
and W. by the Pearl and Mississippi Rivers, which separate 

the country. Productions of the three sections. Mobile. Montgomery. 
Tuscaloosa. — Mississippi. Extent, &c. Boundaries, &c. Surface. Staple 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 261 

it from Louisiana and Ai-kansas. The first settlement in 
this state was made at Natchez, in 1716, by the French. It 
was admitted as a state of the Union in 1817. The surface 
in the southern section, for about 100 miles from the Gulf, is 
nearly a dead level, covered chiefly with pine forests, cypress 
swamps, prairies, and inundated marshes. Farther north the 
surface becomes more elevated, and in many places hilly 
and broken, but not mountainous. A range of bluffs stretches 
along the Mississippi River ; they are an extension of the 
table lands which spread over the state. The great staple 
production of this state is cotton ; but corn, bananas, sweet 
potatoes, tobacco, indigo, and fruits are cultivated. 

Jackson, the capital of Mississippi, is situated at the head 
of boat navigation on the Pearl River. Natchez is the largest 
and most commercial town in the state, situated on the 
east bank of the Mississippi, 292 miles above New Orleans 
Along the river at the foot of the bluff, which rises 200 feet 
from the water, there are stores, warehouses, and other build- 
ings ; but the more respectable part of the city occupies the 
top of the elevation, which affords fine places of residence, 
and a beautiful view of the river and its banks. Lat 31° 34' 
N., Ion. 91° 24' 4" W. Distance from Washington, 1146 
miles. Vicksburg, Port Gibson, and Yazoo' City are places 
of note. 

^ 25. Louisiana. 

Extent, from 29° to 33° N. lat., and from 88° 40' to 94° 25' W. Ion. 
Area, 44,215 square miles. Population, 517,839. 

Louisiana is bounded on the N. by Arkansas and Missis- 
sippi States ; E. by the Mississippi and Pearl Rivers, which 
separate it from Mississippi State, and by the Gulf of Mexico ; 
S. by the Gulf ; and W. by Sabine' River, which separates 
it from Texas. This is one of the most important states of 
the Union. It was first settled at Iberville', in 1699. It be- 
came a state in 1812. Louisiana consists of inundated and 
dry lands. Above the mouth of the Red River, the tract 
hable to periodical inundation is narrow; but below that 
stream it widens and expands like a fan, and finally embraces 
the whole of the Gulf border. All of the soil sufficiently 
elevated for cultivation within the inundated region is of 

production. Other articles. Jackson. Natchez. Other .places. — Louisiana. 
Extent, &c. Its boundaries. Rank. Of the inundated and dry lands. Coast. 



262 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

superior quality. The northern part of the state has an un- 
dulating surface. The country between the Mississippi, Iber- 
ville', and Pearl Rivers is an important part of the state. 
The southern or level portion is highly productive of the 
staple crops, and the northern portion, which is undulating, 
has been considered as the " Garden of Louisiana." 

The coasts are indented with numerous large bays, and 
lined with islands and sand bars. Lakes Pontjhartrain', 
Mau'repas, Borgne, Chetima'ches, Mermentau', CaVcasiu, and 
Sabine', all lie south of 30° N. lat. The Mississippi runs 
through the middle of the state, and divides into several 
mouths before reaching the Gulf of Mexico. The Red River 
crosses the state from west to east, flowing into the Missis- 
sippi 240 miles above New Orleans. To protect the country 
from inundation, levees or embankments are raised along the 
shores. The staple productions of Louisiana are cotton, 
sugar, molasses, tobacco, and rice. The manufactures are 
principally for the supply of the immediate wants of the 
community. 

New Or'leans, the commercial metropolis of Louisiana, is 
situated on the left bank of the Mississippi River, 100 miles 
from its mouth. From its form, as it extends along the bend 
of the river, it is sometimes called the " Crescent City." The 
levee or quay extends for four miles along the bank of the 
river, and presents an unexampled scene of activity. It is 
the great receiving and distributing depot of the interior of 
the United States, and the greatest cotton market in the 
world. By its geographical position it sustains extensive 
commercial relations to the West Indies, South America, 
Mexico, and the southern parts of North America. The in- 
habitants consist of Americans, French, Spanish, Creoles, 
and the colored races of every shade. Lat. 29° 51' W K, 
Ion. 90° W. Distance from Washington 1203 miles. Popu- 
lation, 119,461. 

Bd'ton Rouge', the capital of Louisiana, occupies a pleas- 
ant slope on the east side of the Mississippi, 117 miles north- 
west of New Orleans. It is a military station and seat of a 
college. Donaldsonville, Madisonville, Alexandria, Opelou'- 
sas, and St. Martin's are among the other noted places in this 
state. 

Lakes. Mississippi River. Red River. Levees. Productions. New Orleans. 
Inhabitants. Baton Rouge. Other towns. — Texas. Extent, &c. Bounda- 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 263 



§ 26. Texas. 

Extent, from 27° to 42° N. lat., and from 91° 26' to 106° W. Ion. 
Area, 325,520 square miles. Population, 212,592. 

Texas is bounded N. by Ked and Arkansas RiverS, 
which separate it from the Indian Temtory ; E. by Louisi- 
ana; S. by the Gulf of Mexico; and W. by the Ri'o 
del Nor'te, which separates it from Mexico. This country 
was formerly a province of Mexico ; it became independent 
in 1836. It afterwards sought for admission into the United 
States, which was granted by Congress in 1845. The gen- 
eral aspect of this state is that of a vast inclined plane, gradu- 
ally sloping eastward from the mountains on the western 
border. It comprises three essentially different regions. Along 
the coasts and far inland it is low and level, but free from 
marshes and swamps, and composed of excellent arable and 
pasture lands and prairies. The soil is a deep, black mould, 
and of great fertility. In the north the lands are considera- 
bly elevated, and the surface undulating. The prairies of 
this section are covered with vast forests. On the west 
and south-west is the mountainous region, being crossed 
by the Sier'ra de Sa'ba. There ai-& few countries of the 
same extent which have so small a portion of land unfit 
for cultivation, and no country is better supplied with river 
conveniences. The climate is essentially tropical, except 
in the more northern parts. Cotton and sugar cane are 
the agricultural staples. Most kinds of grain and fruit 
grow luxuriantly in the interior. Silver, iron, coal, and bitu- 
men are among the minerals. Buffaloes .and wild horses 
exist in vast numbers on the prairies. 

Austin, the capital of Texas, is situated on the Colora'do 
River, 200 miles north-west of Gal'veston. Galveston is the 
chief commercial place in the state. It is situated on the 
north-east part of Galveston Island. The entrance to the bay 
is deep and spacious, affording a good harbor and anchorage. 
Lat. 29° 18' U" N., 94° 46' 34" W. Ion. Hous'ton, Sabine^ 
Bex'ar, and Cor'pus Chris'ti are noted places. 



ries. History. Face of the country. Three regions. Mountains. Advan- 
tages. Productions. Minerals. Animals. Austin. Galveston. Other places. 



264 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



y Exercises in Voyages and Travels. 

By railroad from Washington to Philadelphia. From Baltimore to 
Cumberland. From Fredricksburg, Va., to Wilmington, N. C. From 
Charleston, S. C, to Atlanta, Ga. From Savannah to Macon. To Chat- 
tanooga. Describe the two principal travelling routes from Baltimore to 
Charleston. The route from thence to New Orleans. From Savannah 
to Nashville. Transportation of merchandise from Pittsburg to Tuscum- 
bia, Ala. A ship freighted with whale oil from New Bedford to Savannah. 
A cargo of tobacco from Richmond, Va., to Portland, Me. A cargo of 
tar from Wilmington, N. C, to the navy yard at Boston. A ship load of 
granite from Hallowell, Me., to Galveston, Tex. Transportation of rice 
from Savannah to Buffalo. Of cotton from Charleston, S. C, to York, 
Me. Also from New Orleans to Lawrence, Mass. 



§ 27. The States qf the Interior. 

These states have heretofore been called the Western 
States ; but since the extension and rapid increase of set- 
tlements beyond the Rocky Mountains, the term " western '* 
is no longer appropriate. . The States of the Interior have 
no sea coast ; some of them, however, have a large extent 
of lake coast. They occupy the basins of the Mississippi, 
Ohio, and Missouri Rivers, and at present (1855) comprise 
the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan', Wisconsin, 
Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkan'sas, Missouri, and lo'wa, with 
the Minneso'ta, Nebraska, Kansas, and Indian Territories. 
Nearly the whole extent of this region presents a series of 
plains or prairies,' inclining only in the direction of the great 
lakes and rivers. The soil is of great depth and fertility. 
This section is the gran'ary of the United States ; and it is 
scarcely possible to set limits to the breadstuffs which it is 
capable of producing. Inexhaustible supplies of the most 
valuable minerals exist beneath the surface of the earth — 
lead, copper, iron, coal, and lime. With these vast resources 
of wealth, and the great avenues of commerce afforded by 
the great lakes and noble rivers, the States of the Interior 
are destined to rival, if not to excel, in importance any of 
the border states. 

— States of the Interior. Remark. Sea coast. Lake coast. Riv- 
er basins. States and territories comprised. Face of the country. Soil. 
Granary. Minerals. Future. — Ohio. Extent. Boundaries. Comparative 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 265 



§ 28. Ohio. 

Extent, from 38° 34' to 42° N". lat., and from 80° 35' to 84° 57' W. Ion. 
Area, 39,964 square miles. Population, 1,980,408. 

Ohio is bounded on the N. by Michigan and Lake Erie ; 
E. by Pennsylvania; S. E, and S. by Ohio River, which 
separates it from Virginia and Kentucky; and W. by In- 
diana. This flourishing state is the most north-easterly of 
the States of the Interior. It was first settled at Marietta, in 
1788, and in 1802 it became a member of the Union. The 
northern parts of the state, bordering on Lake Erie, and the 
middle portions, are generally level, and in some places wet 
and marshy. The eastern and south-eastern parts, near the 
Ohio River, are very uneven, often rising in abrupt and bro- 
ken hills, though it is not mountainous. The most extensive 
prairies are on the head, waters of the Muskingum and 
Scio'ta, and near the sources of the Miami, in the N.W. 
part of the state. The soil is exceedingly fertile, and nearly 
all of it is susceptible of cultivation. Ohio is an agricultural 
state. Wheat, corn, and pork are the staple articles of trade. 
Iron, bituminous coal, salt, and other minerals are abundant. 
The manufactures of Ohio are already of considerable impor- 
tance, and are rapidly increasing both in vafiety and extent. 

Columbus, the capital, is situated on the left bank of the 
Scid'ta River, near the centre of the state, 110 miles from 
Cincinna'ti, and 396 miles from Washington. A large public 
square of 10 acres, in the centre of the city, is formed by the 
intersection of rectangular streets, and contains the public 
edifices. Columbus owes much of its prosperity to its being 
the seat of government. Lat. 39° 51' N., Ion. 83° 3' W. Dis- 
tance from Washington, 396 miles. 

Ci?icinnati, the largest city of the States of the Literior, is 
beautifully situated on the north bank of the Ohio, in the 
S.W. part of the state. It is the centre of trade for a large 
extent of country, and is the greatest pork market in the world. 
Near Cincinna'ti are several thriving villages and towns, 
which are connected with it in prosperity and interests. Lat. 
39° 5' 54:" N., Ion. 84° 27' W. Distance from Washington, 
497 miles. Population, 115,436. 

Cleveland is situated on an elevated plain at tire entrance 
of Cuyaho'ga River into Lake Erie. Its harbor is one of the 

view. Face of the country. Prairies. Soil. Productions. Minerals. Manu- 
factures. Columbus. Cincinnati. Cleveland. Other towns. — Indiana. 
23 



266 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

best on the lake, spacious and safe. The city is beautifully 
laid out, and the streets are so well shaded by forest trees, as 
to give it the appellation of the " Forest City." Sandusky is 
one of the principal ports on Lake Erie. Zanesville, on the 
Muskingum, Dayton on the Miam'i, and Chillico'the on the 
Scio'ta, are all large and flourishing manufacturing towns. 



§ 29. Indiana. 

Extent, from 37° 45' to 41° 52' N. lat., and from 84° 42' to 88° 12' W. Ion. 
Area, 33,809 square miles. Population, 988,416. 

Indiana is bounded on the N. by tlie Lake and State of 
Michigan ; E. by Ohio ; S. by the Ohio River, which separates 
it from Kentucky ; and W. by Illinois. In features, soil, and 
climate, Indiana forms a connecting link between Ohio and 
Illinois. It is more hilly than the latter, but contains no 
mountains. A range of high land called the " Knobs " extends 
from the falls of the Ohio to the Wabash, which in many 
places produces a broken surface. Bordering on all the 
streams, except the Ohio, are belts of lowland and prairie. 
Between the Wa'bash and Lake Michigan' the country is 
generally level, abounding alternately in woodlands, prairies, 
lakes, and swamps. No state in the Union can show a greater 
extent of fertile land, in one body, than Indiana. The staple 
productions are horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, grain, 
and the products of the dairy. Iron, coal, and epsom salts 
are among the minerals. 

Indianapolis, the capital, is pleasantly situated on the White 
River, near the centre of the state, and is distinguished for 
its rapid growth and prosperity. No less than seven railroads 
centre here, communicating with important places within and 
beyond the limits of the state. Lat. 39° 55' N, Ion. 86° 5' W. 
Distance from Washington 573 miles. 

New Albany, on the Ohio, two miles below the falls, is one 
of the most important places in the state. Great numbers 
of steamboats are here built and repaired. It exhibits all the 
signs of enterprise and prosperity. 

Madiso7i, on the Ohio, is pleasantly situated on a high bank, 
above the reach of the floods, and is one of the most flour- 
ishing places on the river. It is connected with Indianapolis 
by railroad. Evansville, in the S.W. part of the state, is a 

Extent, &c. Boundaries. Compared with Ohio and Illinois. The*' Knobs." 
Lowland and prairie. Productions. Minerals. Indianapolis. New Albany. 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. ^ 267 

large manufacturing and commercial city. It is situated at 
the termination of the Wa'bash and Erie Canal. Harmony, 
Vincennes', Terre Haute, and Logansport are flourishing 
towns on the banks of the Wa'bash. Fort Wayne, on the 
Mau'mee, and Michigan City, on Lake Michigan, areralso 
noted places. 



§ 30. Illinois. 

% 

Extent, from 37° to 42° 30' N. lat., and from 87° 49' to 91° 30' W. Ion. if 

Area, 55,409 square miles. Population, 851,470. '^ 

Illinois is bounded on the N. by Wisconsin ; E. by Lake 
Michigan and the State of Indiana ; S. E. and S. by the Ohio 
River, which separates it from Kentucky; and W. by the 
Mississippi River, "which separates it from I6'wa and Missouri. 
The French settlements of Kaskas'kia and Caho'kia were 
made in the early part of the 17th century, but were never 
important. Illinois became one of the states in 1818. The 
surface of this state may be regarded as a gentle plain, more . 
or less rolling, inclined in the direction of its rivers. It is 
estimated that two thirds of the state are covered with prairie 
lands, presenting every degree of fertility, down to extreme 
barrenness. The northern and southern sections are some- 
what broken, but no portion of the territory is traversed by 
ranges of highlands. The forests abound in oak of various 
kinds, and other trees. Lead is a very important mineral 
production of this state ; the Gale'na mines are the richest in 
the world. Copper and iron ores exist, and coal abounds in 
the bluffs. Fine salt springs exist in the southern part of the 
state. Wheat, corn, and other grains, horses, mules, neat 
cattle, sheep, and swine, are the staple productions. 

Springfield, the capital, is situated on the border of a beau- 
tiful plain, very near the centre of the state. It is one of the 
most pleasant towns in the west ; it is laid out with broad 
and shaded streets, interspersed with spacious lawns and 
squares, all things indicating prosperity and vigorous health. 
Lat. 39° 48' N., Ion. 89° 33' W. Distance from Washington 
801 miles. 

Chicalgo is situated in the N. E. part of the state, on the 
west side of Lake Michigan', and occupies both sides of the 
river, from which it takes its name. It stands on the border 

Madison. Evansville, Other towns. — Illinois. Extent. Its boundaries. 
Early settlements. Surface. Prairies. Trees. Minerals. Productions. Spring- 



268 ^ POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

of a prairie, elevated a little above the level of the lake. Few 
towns have a more advantageous position. The Illinois and 
Michigan.' Canal, by connecting the navigation of the lake 
with that of the great river of the state, has contributed largely 
to the growth of Chica'go* The branches of commerce in 
which it is most extensively engaged are lumber, grain, and 
cattle. Lat. 42° K, Ion. 87° 35' W. Distance from Wash- 
ington 763 miles. Population, 29,963. Alton and Quincy, 
places of extensive trade, -and Gale'na, noted for its valuable 
lead mines, are on or near the Mississippi River. Pe5'ria 
and Peru, on the Illinois, are flourishing towns. 



§ 31. Michigan. 

Extent, from 41° 48;; to 47° 30' N. lat., and from 82° 20' to 90° 10' W. Ion. 
Area, 56,243 square miles. Population, 397,654. 

Michigan consists of two distinct peninsulas. The south- 
ern peninsula is bounded N. by the Straits of Mackinaw, 
which separates it from the upper peninsula ; N. E. by Lake 
Huron, which separates it from Canada West ; E. by Lake 
Huron, the River and Lake St. Clair, Detroit River, and Lake 
Erie, which also separate it from Canada West; S. by Ohio 
and Indiana ; and W. by Lake Michigan. The northern pen- 
insula, which is annexed to Michigan' proper merely for the 
temporary purposes of civil government, is bounded N. by 
Lake Superior ; E. by St. Mary's River, which separates it 
from Canada West ; and S. by Wisconsin, Lake Michigan', 
Mackinaw Strait, and Lake Huron. The surface of Michigan' 
proper is less varied than any Other section of equal extent 
in the Union. It is divided into two gently inclined planes, 
one sloping towards Lake Michigan' on the west, the other 
towards the lakes on the east. The greater portion of the 
country is covered with dense forests, the soil of which is good. 

The northern peninsula is diversified by mountains, hills, 
valleys, and plains. The Porcupine Mountains, with an 
elevation of 1800 to 2000 feet, run nearly throughout the length 
of the peninsula, descending towards the shores of Lake Su- 
perior and Lake Michigan'. From its high latitude and sterile 
character, this section does not promise much to agriculture ; 
but its mineral treasures are invaluable. Rich veins of copper, 
blended more or less with silver, occur at Keweenaw Point, 

field. Chicago. Other towns. — Michigan. Extent. Two peninsulas. Boun- 
daries of the southern peninsula. Of the northern. Surface of Southern Mich- 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 269 

Eagle River, Isle Royale, and in other parts of the peninsula. 
From one of the veins of the Copper Falls mines a single 
mass of native copper has been taken which weighed 30 tons : 
it was perfectly pure. The chief productions of the southern 
peninsula are horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, with 
wheat, corn, and other grains. Situated on the four great 
lakes of Huron, Superior, Michigan, and Erie, this state pos- 
sesses advantages for commerce unsurpassed by any inland 
state in the Union. Its foreign trade is confined to the Brit- 
ish Provinces. An immense traffic is carried on in lumber 
with the Eastern and Southern States. 

Lansing, the capital of Michigan', is situated on Grand 
River, near the centre of the state. It is 95 miles N. W. 
of Detroit, and 80 miles from Lake Michigan. 

Detroit is situated on the west bank of Detroit River, 18 
mUes from Lake Erie. It is an important metropolis of the 
States of the Interior, and is destined to hold a still higher 
rank. Several hundred steamboats and other vessels, from 
various places on the lakes, visit Detroit during the season 
of navigation. Lat. 42° 19' 45" N., Ion. 83° 2' 30" W. Dis- 
tance from Washington 526 miles. Population, 21,019. 

Ypsilan'ti, containing the State Normal School ; Ann Arbor, 
the seat of the State University; Jackson, containing the 
State Penitentiary ; Marshall, Kalamazoo', Paw- Paw, and 
Niles are all large and flourishing towns, through which the 
Central Railroad passes. Mackinaw, on the strait, is a 
United States military post ; the Indians assemble here an- 
nually to receive their annuity from the United States gov- 
ernment. 

§ 32. Wisconsin. 

Extent, from 42° SO' to 47° N. lat., and from 87° to 92° 40' W. Ion. 
Area, 53,924 square miles. Population, 305,191. 

Wisconsin is bounded on the N. by Minnesota, Lake Su- 
perior, and Northern Michigan ; E. by Lake Michigan ; S. by 
Illinois ; and W. by the Mississippi River, which separates 
it from lo'wa and Minneso'ta. This state is one vast plain, 
elevated from 600 to 1500 feet above the Gulf of Mexico, 
and varied only by river hills and the gentle swells and un- 
dulations of the country. In the northern part of the state 

igan. Surface of the northern section. Its resources. Productions of the 
southern section. Advantages of situation. Trade. Lansing. Detroit. Ypsi- 
lanti, and other towns. — Wisconsin. Extent. Its boundaries. Surface. Ad- 
23* 



270 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY* 

the surface is diversified by hills and valleys. In the southern 
and central parts the surface consists of prairies, meadows, 
and timber lands, and the soil is not surpassed in fertility by 
any portion of the Union. The salubrity of the climate, the 
purity of the air and of the water, the coolness and short du- 
ration of the summers, and th^ dryness of the winters, con- 
spire to render Wisconsin one of the most favored regions 
of the United States. The south-west portion of the state 
is one vast mine of lead, extending over a region of 100 
miles in circumference. The copper mines in the north, 
bordering on Lake Superior, are among the richest in the 
world. 

Madison, the capital, is pleasantly situated between two 
beautiful lakes, about midway between Lake Michigan and 
the Mississippi. Milwaukee, the chief city of Wisconsin, is 
finely located for commerce on both sides of Milwaukee 
River, at its entrance into Lake Michigan. It is the market 
for a large part of the productions of the state. Lat 43° 3' 
A5" N., Ion. 87° 57' W. Distance from Washington, 700 
miles. Population, 20,061. Prai'rie du Chien', upon the 
Mississippi, is situated on a beautiful prairie, upon which 
may be seen several artificial mounds of great antiquity. 
Janesville, Beloit, Green Bay, and Fond du Lac are all 
flourishing places. 

§ 33. Iowa. 

Extent, from 40° 30' to 43° 30' N. lat., and from 90° 20' to 96° 50' W. Ion. 
Area, 50,914 square miles. Population, 192,214. 

Iowa is bounded on the N. by Minnesota ; E. by the Mis- 
sissippi, which separates it from Wisconsin and Illinois ; S. 
by Missouri and the lower course of Des Moines River ; and 
W. by the Missouri and Sioux Rivers, which separate it from 
Nebraska and Minneso'ta. The general surface of lo'wa is 
moderately undulating, without mountains or high hills, ex- 
cept in the northern part. Along the margins of the rivers 
there are frequent ranges of bluffs, varying in height from 
40 to 130 feet. In other instances the streams are skirted by 
rich lowlands, covered with trees. A large proportion of the 
state consists of prairies, some of which have a level, others 
a rolling surface. The soil in the lowlands, as well as on 
the prairies, is generally good, the former consisting of a 

vantages. Lead and copper. Madison. Milwaukee. Prairie du Chien. Other 
towns. — Iowa. Extent. Boundaries. Face of the country. Productions. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 2^71 

deep, rich, black mould, and the latter of a sandy loam. 
lo'wa produces luxuriant crops of corn, wheat, and oats. 
Lead is the principal mineral, and is found in the vicinity of 
Dubdque', and along the Upper Mississippi. Coal, limestone, 
and iron ore are also found. 

lo'wa City, the capital, is finely situated on the lo'wa River. 
The location is beautiful, rising on a succession of elevated 
terraces, overlooking a splendid country. Dubtlque', the 
chief commercial town on the Upper Mississippi, is situated 
in the lead mine region. It stands on a prairie, having sev- 
eral bluffs in the rear, some of which are adorned with ele- 
gant mansions. Burlington, on the Mississippi, is the oldest 
town in the state. It possesses great commercial advantages. 
Keokuk, Davenport, Mount Pleasant, Muscatine', and other 
towns are rapidly increasing in population. 



§ 34. Missouri. 

Extent, from 36° 30' to 40° 30' N. lat., and from 89° 20' to 96° W. Ion. 
Area, 65,037 square miles. Population, 682,044. 

Missouri is bounded on the N. by Iowa ; E. by the Mis- 
sissippi, which separates it from Illinois and Kentucky ; S. 
by Arkansas ; and W. by the 96th meridian and Missouri 
River, which separates it from the Indian Territory, Kansas, 
and Nebraska. This state, in the north-western part, is a 
wild prairie. The central and south-western portions are 
hilly and broken, being traversed by ridges of the Ozark' 
Mountains. The south-east is low, swampy, full of lakes, 
and subject to inundation. The best portion of the state lies 
between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, which has an 
undulating surface, with large tracts of alluvial and hilly 
prairies. Missouri is rich in agricultural and mineral re- 
sources. Its chief productions are corn, hemp, and tobacco. 
Large herds of cattle, swine, and horses feed on the prairies. 
The lead, iron, and coal mines are inexhaustible. The cele- 
brated Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob yield 80 per cent, of 
pure iron. 

Jefferson City, the capital, is on the Missouri River, near 
the centre of the state. St. Louis is situated on the west 
bank of the Mississippi, 20 miles below the mouth of the 

Minerals. Iowa City. Dubuque. Burlington. Other towns. — Missouri. 
Extent. Boundaries. Face of the country. Mountains, llesources. Iron 
Mountain and Pilot Knob. Jefferson City. St. Louis. St. Charles. Other 



272 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Missouri, and 180 above the mouth of the Ohio. Its com- 
mercial position and advantages are remarkable. It is the 
entrepot of a vast trade from the valleys of the Ohio and 
Missouri Kivers. Lat. 38° 37' 28" K, Ion. 90° 15' 16" W. 
Distance from Washington 856 miles. Population, 77,864. St, 
Charles, formerly the capital, is on the Missouri River, 20 
miles from its mouth, and is a noted town. Independence, 
New Madrid, and St. Genevieve are also important places. 



§ 35. Arkansas. 

Extent, from 33° to 36° 30' N. lat., and from 89° 30' to 94° 30' W. Ion. 
Area, 54,500 square miles. Population, 209,639. 

Arkansas is bounded on the N. by Missouri ; E. by the 
Mississippi River, which separates it from Tennessee and 
Mississippi; S. by Louisiana; and W. by Texas and the 
Indian Territory. The surface of this state is considerably 
diversified. In the eastern part, for about 100 miles from 
the Mississippi, the country is low and wet, and much of the 
land is subject to inundation. With the exception of some 
prairie, this portion is covered with dense forests. The soil 
here, where arable, is of the most productive kind. In the 
middle of the state the surface is uneven and broken, and in 
the western parts it is mountainous and hilly, interrupted by 
timber lands, prairies, and barren plains. In some respects 
Arkan'sas may be regarded as a barren country, if we except 
the soil along the margin of the rivers, which is generally 
fertile. The chief mountains are the Ozark', which lie at 
the N. W. corner, rising to a height of 2000 feet. A range 
of hills, called the Black Mountains, extends between the 
Arkan'^as and White Rivers. The principal rivers that 
traverse this state are the Ai'kan'sas, Wachita', White, and 
St. Francis. The hot springs near the sources of the Wachita' 
are much resorted to by invalids. The staple productions are 
cotton, grain, cattle, and horses. Its minerals are iron ore, 
lead, gypsum, salt, and coal. 

Little Rock, the capital, is situated on a high bluiF, on the 
south side of the Arkan'sas River, at the head of steamboat 
navigation, 300 miles from its mouth. Lat. 34° 40' N., Ion. 
92° 12' W. Distance from Washington 1068 miles. Van 

places. — Arkansas. Extent. Boundaries. Surface. Ozark Mountains. 
Black Movmtains. Rivers. Springs. Productions. Minerals. Little Kock. 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 273 

Buren, Batesville, Fayetteville, Helena, and Fulton are im- 
portant places. 



§ 36. Kentucky. 

Extent, from 36° 30' to 39° 10' N. lat., and from 82° to 89° 35' W. Ion. 
Area, 37,680 square miles. Population, 982,405. " 

Kentucky is bounded on the N. by the Ohio Biver, which 
separates it from Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio ; E. by Virginia ; 
S. by Temiessee ; and W. by Missouri. The territory of 
this state was formerly a part of Virginia, and was explored 
by Daniel Boone, in 1792. It lies entirely in the Valley of 
the Ohio, and is a part of an immense inclined plane, more 
or less broken in its surface, descending from Cumberland 
Mountains to the River Ohio. The hills are gently rounded, 
and are fertile quite to their tops, having narrow valleys 
between them of great fertility. The whole state below the 
mountains rests on a bed of limestone, in general about eight 
feet below the surface. In the S. W. part of the state, be- 
tween Green and Cumberland Rivers, are several wonderful 
caverns. The " Mammoth Cave," in Edmonson county, 
130 miles from Lexington, is nine or ten miles in extent, 
with a great number of avenues and intricate windings. 
Most of the caves yield an inexhaustible supply of nitre, 
which is one of the ingredients in the manufacture of gun- 
powder. The principal rivers are the Ohio, Mississippi, 
Teimessee, Cumberland, Kentucky, Green, Salt, Licking, 
Rolling, and Big Sandy. The staples are corn, tobacco, 
hemp, and wheat. Among the mineral resources are iron, 
coal, salt, saltpetre, and lime. The salt springs are numer- 
ous. 

' Frankf&rt, the capital, is situated on a circular bend on the 
north side of Kentucky River, 60 miles from the Ohio. Be- 
hind the town the plain rises several hundred feet into a 
table land, from which appears a magnificent prospect of the 
river, and a wide extent of country. The citizens of Frank- 
fort display the accustomed intelligent hospitality which is a 
characteristic of Kentuckians. Population, 4372. 

Louisville is the great commercial city of the state. It is 
situated on the south bank of the Ohio River, immediately 
above the falls. This city may be regarded as one of the 

Other towns. — Kentucky. Extent. Its boundaries. History. Situation. 
Surface. Geological basis. Caverns. Rivers. Productions, &c. Frankfort. 



274 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

great magazines for provisions in the interior. It is the 
market for a vast agricultural region, and trades extensively 
with the whole valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi. The 
Portland Canal enables vessels from below to avoid the 
rapids of the Ohio in ascending and descending the river. 
Lat. 38° 3' N., Ion. 85° 30' W. Distance from Washington 
590 miles. Population, 43,194. 

Lexington, the oldest settlement in the state, is situated in 
the midst of a most beautiful and fertile country, on a branch 
of the Elkhorn River, 70 miles from Louisville. It is the 
seat of Transylvania University. Maysville, on the Ohio, 
as also Covington and Newport, are flourishing towns. 



§ 37. Tennessee. 

Extent, from 36° to 37° 42' N. lat., and from 81° 30' to 90° 10' W. Ion. 
Area, 44,000 square miles. Population, 1,002,625. 

Tennessee is bounded on the N. by Kentucky and Vir- 
ginia; E. by North Carolina, of which it was formerly a part; 
S. by Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi; and W. by the 
Mississippi River, which separates it from Arkan'sas and 
Missouri. It became a state in 1796. This state is greatly 
diversified in surface, soil, and climate. The eastern part 
abounds in mountains and hills, some of them lofty, and 
presenting scenery peculiarly grand and picturesque. The 
middle section is less bold in its features; though hilly, it 
gradually becomes undulating, and even level towards the 
north. The soil of the western division is black and rich ; 
in the middle section there are large extents of excellent 
land, and in the eastern or mountainous parts, the soil is 
generally thin, except in the valleys, where it is exceedingly 
fertile. The Cumberland Mountains intersect the state, 
extending from S. W. to N. E. The principal rivers are the 
Mississippi, Cumberland, Tennessee, Clinch, Holston, Duck, 
French, Broad, and Hiwas'see. Cotton, tobacco, and hemp 
are the staples. Of minerals, iron, gold, coal, salt, and salt- 
petre are the principal. 

Nashville, the capital and largest city, enjoys an extensive 
trade. It is situated on the Cumberland River, 122 miles 
from its mouth. Few southern cities combine a pleasant 
situation with more attractive hospitality and refinement, or 

Louisville. Lexington. Other places. — Tennessee. Extent. Boundaries. 
Surface. Soil. Rivers. Products. Nashville. Memphis. Knoxville. — 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 275 

display a greater number of elegant public structures, than 
Nashville. Lat. 36° 9' 33" N., Ion. 86° 49' 3'' W. Distance 
from Washington 714 miles. Population, 10,478. 

Memphis, in the S. W. corner of the state, on the Missis- 
sippi, is a place of considerable trade. One of the United 
States naval stations is here. Knoxville. on the Holston, 
was formerly the capital. 



§ 38. Minnesota Territory. 

Extent, from 42° 30' to 49° N. lat., and from 91° to 103° W. Ion. 
Area, 141,839 square miles. Population, 6077. 

Minnesota is bounded on the N. by British America; E. 
by Lake Superior and Wisconsin, from which it is separated 
in part by the Mississippi River ; S. by lo'wa ; and W. by 
Nebraska, from which it is separated in part by the Missouri 
E-iver. This territory was organized under its present name 
in 1849. St. Paulis the capital and chief town, situated on 
the Mississippi River, 8 miles below the Falls of St. An- 
thony. Minneso'ta is an elevated table land, with a surface 
but little varied, being mostly a rolling prairie, abounding 
with lakes of pure water, and streams which flow in all di- 
rections, excepting towards the west. The soil is a fertile 
sandy loam, easily cultivated, and well adapted to agricul- 
tural purposes. The Mississippi River rises centrally in the 
territory, in Itas'ka Lake, a beautiful sheet of water. The 
waters of this territory pass off^ some to Hudson's Bay, some 
to Lake Superior, and some to the Gulf of Mexico. Forests 
of pine and other valuable woods for timber border the prin- 
cipal streams ; and iron, lead, and copper ores are found in 
the eastern section. 



§ 39. Nebraska Territory. 

Extent, from 40° to 49° N. lat., and from the Missouri River on the feast 

to the main ridge of the Rocky Mountains on the west. 

Area, 275,000 square miles. 

Nebraska is bounded on the N. by British America ; E. 
by Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri ; S. by Kansas ; and W. 
by Utah, Oregon, and Washington. Tliis territory was or- 

MiNNESOTA Territory. Extent. Its limits. St. Paul. Physical aspects. 
Watercourses. Resources. — Nebraska Territory. Extent. Boundaries. 



21^6 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

ganized under its present name in 1854. The face of the 
country is that of rolhng prairie, but little diversified except 
by the streams intersecting it. The soil, for 50 to 100 miles 
west of the Missouri River, is like that of Iowa and Mis- 
souri. The highlands are open prairies, covered with 
grasses ; the river bottom is a deep, rich loam, shaded by 
dense forests. A spur of the Rocky Mountains, called the 
Wmd River chain, passes from Frem'ont's Peak in an east- 
erly, and thence in a northerly dhection, and is continued in 
the gentle undulations of the Black Hills to the N. E. bor- 
der, thus forming the basin of the Upper Missouri and Yel- 
low Stone Rivers. The valley of the Yellow Stone is the 
garden spot of Nebraska. The Nebraska or Platte River 
rises in the Rocky Mountains, in the S. W. part of the ter- 
ritory, and flows eastward to the Missouri. Its bed is so 
shallow and unstable, from its quicksands, as to be almost 
useless for commercial purposes. The Platte River valley 
is generally a dead flat, elevated only from 18 to 26 inches 
above the surface of the stream, and the greater portion 
liable to inundation. From the city of St, Louis, travelling 
either northward or westward, the climate becomes colder 
about in the same degree — the difference of elevation trav- 
elling west being about equal in its effects to the difference 
of latitude travelling north. Snow falls at the foot of the 
mountains about the first of September, and at Council 
Bluffs about the first of November. 



§ 40. Kansas Territory. 

Extent, from 37° to 40° N. lat., and from the west boundary of Missouri 

State to the crest of the Rocky Mountains. 

Area, 122,000 square miles. 

This territory is drained by the main branch of the Arkan- 
sas, by the Kansas, and by head tributaries of the Platte 
(south fork) Rivers. The surface is level, consisting of an 
immense plain, with a gentle slope from the base of the 
Rocky Mountains to the Missouri . border, and the abrupt 
descent from the mountain ridge to the base. The soil is 
various, comprising rich alluvial bottom lands bordering the 
streams, some fertile prairie lajids, and extensive sandy pl&^ins. 
Kansas was erected into an organized territory in 1854. 

Face of the country. Highlands. River basins. Platte River. Climate. — 
Kansas. Extent. Rivers. Surface. Soil. When organized. — Indian 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 277 



§ 41. Indian Territory. 

This is a tract of country west of the settled portions of 
the United States, which has been set apart by the General 
Government for the permanent residence of those Indian 
tribes that have been removed chiefly from the south-western 
states. Here they are secured in governments of their own 
choice, subject to no other control from the United States 
than such as may be necessary to preserve peace on the 
frontier and between the several tribes. It extends from 
Red Kiver on the south to lat. 37° N., and from the States 
of Arkansas and Missouri on the east to 100° W. Ion. Area, 
187,171 square miles. The tribes of the Chickasaws, Choc- 
taws, Creeks, Seminoles, and Cherokees are the principal 
occupants. 

Exercises in Voyages and Travels. 

By steamboat from Pittsburg to Cairo. By railroad from Sandusky to 
Cincimiati. By steamboat from Detroit to Chicago. From Detroit to 
Buffalo. By railroad from Cincimiati to Cleveland. From Cleveland to 
Pittsburg. From Sandusky City to Chicago. From Indianapolis to Mad- 
ison. From Louisville to Frankfort.. A ship freighted with ice from 
Boston to Mobile. Transportation of pork from Cincinnati to Baltimore. 
Of lead fr'om Galena and Dubuque to New York. Of copper from the 
mines of Lake Superior to Pittsburg. Of French goods imported into 
New York to be transported by water to Chicago. Transport a shipment 
of furs from the hfead waters of the Yellowstone to St. Louis, and thence 
to Boston. A consignment of sugar fr-om New Orleans to a merchant in 
Milwaukee. Transportation of 20 pieces of carpeting from Lowell to De- 
troit. A company of emigrants from New York city to BurHngton, Iowa. 
How may wheat from Peoria, HI., be sent to Providence, R. I. ? 



§ 42. The Pacific States and Territories. 

This section embraces all that tract of country which lies 
between the crest of the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific 
Ocean. It is bounded on the north by the 49th parallel of 
latitude, and Straits of Juan de Fuca, and extends south as 
far as the 31st degree of north latitude. It comprises the 

Teebitory. Purpose. Extent. Tribes inhabiting it. — Pacific States and 
24 



278 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

State of California, and the Territories of Oregon, Washing- 
ton, Utah, and New Mexico. It possesses a diversity of 
surface, soil, and climate. That portion occupied by Oregon 
and Washington has belonged to the United States for many 
years, and has remained till recently a wilderness. The part 
now known as California, New Mexico, and Utah was ceded 
to the United States by Mexico, February 2, 1848. The ex- 
istence of gold in California was discovered immediately 
after, and the population increased with unexampled rapidity. 
Never has a single event produced such wonderful results in 
so short a time. In 1849 a convention assembled, and a con- 
stitution was formed. This was immediately ratified by the 
people, and in 1850 California was admitted as a state into 
the Federal Union. At the same time New Mexico and 
Utah were organized as territories. In 1853, owing to the 
increase of population consequent to the " gold discovery," 
Oregon was divided, and the part north of Columbia River 
organized as the Territory of Washington. The valley of 
the Willamette' is the most fertile portion of Oregon. The 
gold region, so far as known, lies in the valley of the Sacra- 
mento and San Joaquin' Rivers, occupying a large area. 
Besides gold, there are inexhaustible mines of silver, quick- 
silver, lead, copper, and iron. The present condition of the 
country affords but slight means for forming correct opinions 
of the agricultural capacity and fertility of the soil. 



§ 43. California. 

^ Extent, from 32° 40' to 42° N. lat., and from 114° to 124° W. Ion. 
Area, 188,982 square miles. In 1852 the population was 264,435. 

California is bounded on the N. by Oregon ; E. by Utah 
and New Mexico ; S. by Mexico ; and W. by the Pacific 
Ocean. The greater part of the state is hilly or mountainous. 
The most prominent range of mountains is the Sier'ra Ne- 
va'da, lying nearly parallel with the coast, and from 100 to 
200 miles distant. On the western slope of this range are the 
principal gold mines, extending 400 or 500 miles in length, 
and 50 or 60 in width. The slope of the Sier'ra is broken, 
by the numerous tributaries of the Sacramen'to and Sati 
Joaquin' Rivers, into deep gorges and ravines, and the sur- 

Territories. Extent. Comprises what ? Of Oregon and Washington. Of 
the remainder. Gold. When discovered. Convention in California. Result. 
New Mexico and Utah. Division of Oregon. Locality of the gold region. 
Other metals. Remark. — California. Extent. Boundaries. Siu-face. 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 279 

face of the region is extremely rugged and uneven. The 
great valley of the Sacramen'to and San Joaquin' is 500 
miles in length, and 50 or 60 in width ; it is very level, has 
but little timber, and though fertile in some parts along the 
borders of the streams, it is elsewhere either arid and unpro- 
ductive, or consists of extensive, low, alluvial marshes thickly 
covered with rushes. On the west of this great valley is the 
coast range of hills and mountains, which in some parts are 
3000 feet high, and run parallel with the coast, at a distance 
of 30 to 60 miles. These hills are interspersed with numerous 
valleys, some of which are of great fertihty and beauty. 

Although the soil of this state is not generally adapted to 
the purposes of agriculture, yet there is land enough of the 
finest quality to supply a large population with their ordinary 
vegetable wants. The vine flourishes in different parts of 
the state, and wine has long been made at Los Angeles, and 
in other places. The various vegetables and fruits of the 
temperate zone flourish finely, and in the southern counties 
many tropical productions may be successfully cultivated. 
California seems by nature peculiarly adapted for grazing ; 
but under judicious cultivation its agricultural resources are 
very great. 

The coast range of mountains and the valleys of the Sac- 
ramen'to and San Joaquin' abound in deer, elk, antelopes, 
and other wild game, and the plains are traversed by im- 
mense herds of wild horses. The formidable grisly bear is 
found in all parts of the state. The cattle of the country 
are fine, and are owned by native Californians, often in herds 
of many thousands. These were formerly killed in great 
numbers for their hides and tallow, wliich constituted the 
principal exports of the country, and the chief source of 
wealth to the inhabitants. 

Minerals. — Silver, lead, copper, platinum, and other mines 
have been discovered in California, (though not yet worked ;) 
but the great mineral wealth of the state consists in its mines 
of gold and quicksilver. Although the existence of gold in 
this country had long been known, it never attracted general 
attention before 1848, when it was discovered near Sut'ter's 
Mill, on the south fork of the American River. Since that 
time it has been found on all the principal eastern branches 
of the Sacramen'to and San Joaquin', as well as in the coast 
range on the tributaries of the Trinity and Kla'math Rivers, 

•Sierra Nevada. Western slope. Streams. Valley of the Sacramento and 
San Joaquin. Coast range. Soil. Vine. Vegetables. Animals. Minerals. 



280 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

in the northern part of the state. The gold is found under 
two general forms — interspersed in irregular veins of quartz 
in the mountain rocks, and in lumps and scales of all sizes 
down to " golden pebbles," metallic gravel, and sand, min- 
gled with the alluvium or drift which occurs in the bottoms 
of the " gulches " or ravines, and in the banks and beds of 
the streams, particularly in the bars of sand and gravel 
formed by eddies and counter currents. 

The* principal streams of California are the Sacramento, 
San Joaquin', Kla^'math, Trinity, Feather, Yu'ba, Eel, Nap'pa, 
Calave'ras, Sali'nos, Guadalii'pe, Tuoliim'ne, Moquelum'ne, 
Maripo'sa, Stan'islaus, Fall, and American Rivers. The bays 
worthy of note are San Francisco, San Pablo', Suisson', all 
entered through the Golden Gate, which together form a 
most capacious harbor. They afford good anchorage, and, 
being completely land-locked, are safe at all seasons. Hum- 
boldt and San Die'go Harbors, and Trinidad and Monterey' 
Bays, are well protected from the ocean winds, and afford a 
safe anchorage. This country has some lakes, the most 
noted of which are the Tala'res, Owen's, Clear, and Rhett. 

The climate of the coast, particularly in the north-west 
part of the state, is mild during the year ; but at the south it 
is much warmer, and in summer it is often exceedingly hot. 
A few miles inland the ocean breezes become tempered to 
mildness, and the climate is pleasant and healthy ; but be- 
yond the reach of the ocean breeze, particularly in the great 
valley, the summer is intensely hot. The dry season, in 
which little or no rain falls, lasts generally from April to No- 
vember ; the rainy months occur from November to May. 
The annual freshets of the valley of Sacramento and San 
Joaquin' occur in the winter and spring, in consequence of 
the melting snows of the Sier'ra. 

San Francisco is the chief commercial port of California, 
silaated on the eastern slope of the ridge dividing the Bay 
of San Francisco from the Pacific Ocean. The entrance 
from the ocean is through the Golden Gate, a narrow strait 
about a mile in width, with rocky walls on each side, and five 
miles in length, where it opens into the magnificent bay. 
The city is built on the sandy slope, descending from the 
hills to the waters of the bay, and spreads out in all direc- 
tions. The streets are laid out with regularity, some parallel 
with the shore, and rising one behind another in a succession 
of terraces. Brick, stone, and iron are extensively employed 

Gold. Rivers. Bays. Harbors. Lakes. Climate. Dry season. Rainy sea- 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 281 

ill the construction of buildings. The city is supplied with 
pure water from a lake three miles distant. Here is concen- 
trated an immense capital em.ployed in the purchase of gold 
dust, and in private banking. 

San Francisco was incorporated as a city in 1847. It now 
contains a population of upwards of 50,000, who have come 
from every part of the globe. Daily lines of steamers run 
to Sacramento, Marysville, Stockton, San Joaquin' city, and 
other points on the rivers, and in the northern and southern 
mines ; while ocean steamers ply from San Francisco to 
Panama', and San Juan' del Stil', the port of Nicara'gua. 
Vessels from the Atlantic coast, and from all parts of the 
world, constantly come and go. Lat. 37° 47' 35" N., Ion. 
122° 26' 15" W. 



§ 44. Oregon Territory. 

This territory lies between the crest of the Rocky Moun- 
tains on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the west ; and 
between 42° and 46° 10' N. latitude. It is bounded on the 
N. by Washington Territory, from which it is separated by 
the Columbia River and the 46th parallel; E. by Nebraska; 
S. by Utah and California; and W. by the ocean. Area, 
210,000 square miles. 

Oregon Territory is chiefly mountainous, but it abounds 
in fertile valleys. It forms three sections, separated by 
ridges nearly parallel, and following the general direction of 
the coast line. Each section is distinct in its soil, produc- 
tions, and climate. The Western section, from the coast to 
the Cascade range, has a genial climate throughout the 
year. The valley of the Willamette' is exceedingly fertile ; 
the intervals and prairies forming the best of farms, and the 
uplands affording good pasturage and valuable timber. The 
Middle section, between the Cascade range and Blue 
Mountains, has generally a light, sandy soil, but many val- 
leys of rich alluvial deposit. This is said to be a fine grazing 
region. The Eastern section, lying between the Blue Moun- 
tains and the crest of the Rocky Montains, comprising full 
one half of the territory, is mostly a rocky and rough country, 
with some few narrow valleys of great fertility. 

The principal places are Salem, the capital, Portland, at 

son. City of San Francisco. When incorporated, &c. — Oregon Territory. 
Extent. Boundary. Face of the country, \yestem section. Middle section. 
24* 



282 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

the head of navigation on the Cokimbia, Oregon City, and 
Astoria. Oregon was organized with a territorial government 
in 1848. The portion now forming Washington Territory- 
was set off by an act of Congress, March, 1853. 



§ 45. Washington Territory. 

Washington Territory lies between the crest of the 
Kocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, and extends from 
the 46th parallel and Columbia River to 49° N. lat. Area, 
113,821 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by British 
America ; E. by Nebraska ; S. by Oregon Territory ; and W. 
by the ocean. 

The country west of the Cascade Range is the only por- 
tion yet settled by a white population. It has a diversified 
surface, and the valleys bordering on the streams have a rich 
soil. Puget's Sound, Hood's Canal, and Admiralty Inlet 
abound with fine harbors. The Cascade Range crosses the 
country from the south (at the cascades on the Columbia 
River) to the north, rising in several peaks above the snow 
line, as Mount St. Helen's, Mount Rainier', and Mount Baker. 
The climate is said to be unusually mild and even in tem- 
perature for so high a northern latitude. The country near 
Puget's Sound abounds with fine timber, and its waters with 
excellent fish. 

Olympia is the capital, situated on Budd's Inlet, at the 
head of Puget's Sound. Other towns are Cowlitz, Pacific 
City, and Nisqual'ly. The territory was separated froii Ore- 
gon in 1853. 



§ 46. New Mexico Territory. 

The Territory op New Mexico is situated between 32° 
and 38° N. lat, and between 103° and 116° W. Ion. It is 
bounded N. by Utah and Kansas ; E. by Kansas and Texas ; 
S. by Texas and Mexico ; and W. by California. Area, 
about 211,000 square miles. 

The general appearance of the country is mountainous, 
with a large valley in the middle running north and south, 

Eastern section. Salem. Other places. — Washington Territory. Extent. 
Boundaries. Settled portion. Surface. Harbors. The Cascade range. Peaks. 
Climate. Puget's Sound. Olympia. Other places. — New Mexico Terri- 



THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 283 

formed by the Ri'o Gran'de del Nor'te. This valley is gener- 
ally about 20 miles wide, and bordered on the east and west 
by mountain chains, continuations of the Rocky Mountains. 
There are some valleys of less extent along the borders of 
smaller streams, and a few spaces of elevated table land. 
East of the Ptocky Mountains there are prairies and plains. 
The soil m the valley of the E.i'o Gran'de, within the limits 
of this territory, is generally sandy and looks poor, but by ir- 
rigation it produces abundant crops. The most fertile part 
of the valley begins below San'ta Fe, along the river, where 
it is not unusual to raise two crops in one year. Besides the 
E-i'o Gran'de, the Colora'do forms part of the western boun- 
dary, and the Gila, which flows westward, is now included 
within the southern limits of this territory. New Mexico 
was obtained from the Mexican government by treaty in 
1848, and was organized as a territory in 1850. Sdn'ta Fe is 
the capital. 



$ 47. Utah Territory. 

Utah is situated between 37° and 42° N. lat, and 106° and 
120° W. Ion. It is bounded on the N. by Oregon ; E. by the 
crest of the Rocky Mountains, which separate it from Ne- 
braska, Kansas, and New Mexico ; S. by New Mexico ; and 
W. by the Sierra Nevada range, which separate it from Cal- 
ifornia. Area, 208,775 square miles. In 1853 the population 
was 18,206. 

This is one of the most singular countries in the world. 
It occupies the northern portion of the great basin between 
the Sier'ra Neva'da and the Rocky Mountains, at an eleva- 
tion of from 4000 to 5000 feet above the sea level, shut in 
all around by mountains, with its own system of lakes and 
rivers, and without any direct connection with the ocean. 
Mountain is the predominating structure of the interior of 
the basin, with plains between ; the mountains are wooded 
and watered, the plains arid and sterile. The mountains of 
the interior are the Hum'boldt and Wa'satch. The principal 
rivers are the Colora'do, Humboldt's, Bear, Utah, and Tim- 
pan'ogos. The chief lake is the Great Salt Lake, the waters 
of which are shallow, and contain more salt than can be held 
in solution, so that its borders abound with crystallized salt, and 

TORY. Extent and boundaries. Face of the country. Soil. Rivers. When 
ceded to the United States. When organized. Santa F^. — Utah Terri- 
tory. Extent and boundaries. A singular country. Location and aspects. 



284 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

the bottom of the lake is incrusted with it. No living crea- 
ture can exist in its waters. The lake is about 70 miles long 
and 35 broad, and has no known outlet. Utah Lake is of 
fresh water, and receives numerous fresh water streams from 
the mountains. It abounds in fish; is about 100 feet above 
the level of the Salt Lake, into which it pours its surplus 
waters by the Kiver Jordan, 35 miles in length. The valleys 
are susceptible of cultivation where they can be irrigated. 
There is but little rain, except on the mountains, from March 
to October. The temperature is more uniform in the valley 
than on the Atlantic coast ; it rarely falls below zero. 

About the time of the opening of the late war with Mex- 
ico the Mormons were driven from Nauvoo, Illinois, by the 
violence of a mob. They sought a temporary refuge on the 
western border of lo'wa, from whence they commenced their 
emigration to the Great Salt Lake, and founded the Great 
Salt Lake City. They organized a temporary government 
under the title of the State of Deseret; but the United 
States government established a territory by the present 
name of Utah, on the 9th of September, 1850, since which 
time the population has increased by emigration from all 
parts of the earth of converts to " the faith," more especially 
from Wales and other parts of Great Britain. 

The capital is Fillmore City, situated on the western slope 
of the Wasatch Mountains, in the interior of the territory, at 
an elevation of 4790 feet above the level of the ocean, and 
in a fertile valley, whose surplus waters are carried off by a 
small stream into the Nicollet River and Lake. A recent 
traveller in this region writes as follows : — 

" We examined a very rich coal bed in San Pete Valley, 
which was recently discovered, and found it composed of 
three layers, of 2^, 3^, and 5 feet, one above the other, and 
but a thin layer of rock between each. It is clean bitumi- 
nous coal, of an excellent quality, and burns freely, as we 
ascertained by making a fire with it on the ground. It lies 
in the mountains at an angle of about five or six degrees, 
and is very accessible and abundant. 

" About thirty -five miles south of Fillmore, and one mile 
from the road, I visited a sulphur bed, which is evidently the 
crater of an extinguished volcano. The sulphur, which is 
very rich, forms a crust of half a mile in circumference, va- 
ries in depth, and beneath it the earth is hollow or like a 

Predominating structure. Mountains. Rivers. Lakes. Valleys Rains. 
Temperature. The Mormons. Fillmore City. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 285 

honeycomb, as the footsteps of my horse plainly indicated. 
By placing the ear over any of the apertures in the crust, 
and of which there are several, the sound of cataracts is dis- 
tinctly heard from a great depth. Above this bed there is a 
beautiful magnesia spring, and below it another of sulphur 
and magnesia combined. 

" In Salt Creek Canon there is a mountain of rock salt of 
an excellent quality. Seven miles from Fillmore stands 
conspicuously Cinder Rock, six miles long, and composed 
exclusively of volcanic cinders, upon which no vegetation 
exists. 

" I visited the iron works at Cedar City, in Iron county, and 
found the furnace in blast. Coal of a superior quality, and 
iron ore containing 75 per cent of pure metal, are found in 
abundance upon the surface of the ground. They are now 
making castings with cold air, which will soon be superseded 
by hot air, as all the requisite pipes have been cast. 

" Grasshoppers have been very destructive to the wheat 
throughout the valleys, and many farmers are reploughing 
their fields to plant potatoes and corn. 

" Cattle raising is carried on here (in Southern Utah) very 
profitably, and to a great extent, as it is not necessary to feed 
them. The raising of sheep is also attended to, and they 
are increasing in number very fast. 

" The progress these people have made in converting these 
deserts into ' smiling fields ' within so short a period is aston- 
ishing to a stranger, and highly praiseworthy." 



Exercises in Voyages and Travels. 

Describe a voyage from New York to Rio Janeiro ; from thence to 
Valparaiso; and from thence to San Francisco. Describe the land route 
from St. Louis, Mo., to Santa F6 ; from Independence to Oregon ; to 
Utah; to California. Ship a cargo of wheat from Salem on the Wil- 
lamette to San Francisco. Voyage from San Francisco to the Sand- 
wich Islands. 



CHAPTER IV. 

MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND WEST INDIES. 
§ 1. Mexico. 

Area in square miles, 855,964. Population, 7,661,919. 

Mexico is bounded on the N. E. by the Ri'o Gran'de del 
Nor'te, which separates it from Texas ; on the E. by the 
Gulf of Mexico ; on the S. E. by the State of Guatemala ; 
on the W. and S. W. by the Pacific Ocean ; and on the N. by 
the conventional boundary line, as established by the Gads- 
den treaty of 1854, which runs between the 31st and 32d 
parallels of latitude. That portion of Mexico lying south 
of the tropic of Cancer is best known, and is the most 
wealthy and populous. The surface is very varied, caus- 
ing that singular diversity of climate which distinguishes it 
from most other countries. Mexico has long been noted for 
its mines of the precious metals ; but recent researches have 
made known the existence of other valuable metals besides 
these — iron, copper, tin, lead, zinc, and quicksilver. The 
productions of the soil are Indian corn, wheat, coffee, sugar, 
rice, cotton, tobacco, indigo, and the tropical fruits. 

" The form of government in Mexico is a problem. Ever 
changing in form and principle — now based on constitution- 
al law, and anon the sport of a dictator — it is impossible to 
define its numerous phases. Nominally it is a republic, and 
is vested in a President and Congress similar to that of the 
United States. The characteristics of the Mexican are 
deceit and falsehood, but it is deceit and falsehood engen- 
dered in an atmosphere where truth, and frankness, and 
honesty lead the possessor of these virtues to certain pun- 
ishment. The influence of government in producing this 

Mexico. Boundaries. Part best known. Surface. Mines. Productions. 
Government. Revolutions. States. City of Mexico. Chief seaports on the 

(286) 



MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND WEST INDIES. 287 

State of things is acknowledged ; a terror constantly occupies 
the minds of the people, and an apprehension of coming 
evils and an anxiety to avoid them overcome all sense of 
moral uprightness, and convert the people into a nation of 
serfs, amenable to the nod of the taskmaster. The church, 
too, acts wofully on the reasoning faculties, and holds over 
the head of all who refuse to acknowledge its supremacy 
the rod of oppression." 

The states comprising the Mexican confederacy are as 
follows : — 

Tamau'lipas, San Luis Poto'si, Mexico, 

Nue'vo Leon', Zacate'cas, Quereta'ro, 

Coahuila, Guanaxua'to, Piie'bla, 

Chihua'hua, A'guas Cahen'tes, Oaxa'ca, 

Duran'go, Jalis'co, Tabas'co, 

Sono'ra, Mechoacan', Chia'pas, 

Cinald'a, Ve'ra Crtiz, Yucatan'. 

Besides the states, there are also the Territories of Lower 
California, Tldscala, and Colima. 

The city of Mexico, the capital of the confederacy, and 
one of the most beautiful cities in the world, is situated in 
the midst of an elevated plain, 7000 feet above the level of 
the sea, and surrounded by mountains. Lat. 19° 25' N., Ion. 
99° 5' W. The principal seaports on the Gulf of Mexico 
are Ve'ra Criiz, Tampi'co, S5t6 la Mari'na, and Matamo'ras ; 
on the Pacific coast, Acaptil'co, San Bias, and Mazatlan' ; 
and on the Gulf of California, Guaya'mas. 



§ 2. The Central American States. 

Area in square miles, 281,900. Population, 2,104,916. 

The country, which, under the dominion of Spain, was 
Imown as the kingdom of Guatema'la, is now divided into 
six parts : British Honduras in the north, and the five sepa- 
rate republics of Guatema'la, Hondu'ras, San Salvador', Nic- 
ara'gua, and Costa Ri'ca. Their respective capitals are New 
Guatemala, Comayagua, San Salvador, Leon, and San Jos^. 
These states have each a form of government chiefly based 
on the Constitution of the United States. In some the gov- 

gulf. On the west coast. — Central American States. Six divisions or 
states. Form of government. Cities, towns, and villages. Articles of ex- 



288 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

ernments are republican in name only. The cities, towns, 
and villages have separate municipalities, and annually elect 
their alcaldes and other officers. . The principal exports of 
these states are the precious metals, indigo, cochineal, ma- 
hogany, dye woods, sarsaparilla, hides, and tortoise shell. 
The trade is chiefly in the hands of the English and Ameri- 
cans. The principal ports on the Caribbe'an Sea are Omd'a, 
Truxirio, and Greytown. Those on the Pacific are Realejo', 
CaPderas, La Union, Libertad, and Ista'pa. 



§ 3. The West Indies. 
Area in square miles, 94,585. Population, 3,673,857. 

The original races of these islands are now extinct. When 
first discovered by the Spaniards, in 1492, they were inhabit- 
ed by two distinct nations; those occupying the Baha'mas. 
and Greater Antilles' were a mild, peaceful, and numerous 
people, and somewhat advanced in civilization ; those of the 
Caribbee Islands were fierce and warlike. At a later period 
many of these islands have, at different times, belonged to 
different European nations, and in some of them there is a 
strange mixture of people and languages. All, except San 
Domingo, still belong to European powers, and, excepting 
the English colonies, contain a large proportion of negro 
slaves. The whites form, comparatively, but a small part of 
the population. 

The Bahamas consist of about 650 islands and keys. 
They belong to Great Britain, and have a population of about 
27,000. Nassau, the capital, is a flourishing town, on Provi- 
dence Island. The salt ponds of Turk's Island supply great 
quantities of salt, the chief article of export. 

Cuba, the chief of the Greater Antilles', is the largest and 
most important of the West Indies. It comprises an area 
of 43,380 square miles, and a population of 1,247,230. It is 
governed by a captain general appointed by Spain. Havana, 
the capital, on the N. W. coast, is one of the chief cities of 
America. It has one of the best harbors in the world, and 
an extensive commerce. The other principal places are 
Matanzas, Puerto Prin'cipe, San Salvador', and St. Ja'go. 
The chief exports are tobacco, coffee, sugar, and fruits. 

port. Ports on the Caribbean Sea. On the Pacific. — West Indies. Of the 
aborigines. Two nations in the time of Columbus. At a later period. Con- 
trolling power. Negroes. — Bahamas. Nassau. Turk's Island. — Cuba. Ha- 



MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND WEST INDIES. 289 

Porto Rico, the most easterly of the Greater Antilles', 
also belongs to Spain. Its rich and varied soil is adapted to 
the cultivation of sugar cane, coffee, rice, and cocoa. San 
Juan, the capital, has considerable commerce. Area of the 
island, 3865 square miles. Population, 380,000. 

San Domingo Island is in possession of the negroes, and 
is divided into two independent states. The Empiee of 
Hayti is in the west, with an area of 11,500 square miles, 
and 700,000 inhabitants. Port au Prince, on the Gulf of 
Gonave', is the capital, and most important place on the 
island. The Republic of Dominica is in the east, and com- 
prises an area of 18,000 square miles, with a population of 
200,000. Its capital is San Domingo. 

Jamaica is the principal of the British West India Islands. 
It lies about 100 miles south of Cuba, and comprises an area 
of 4250 square miles, and a population of 379,690, of whom 
about 16,000 are whites. Spanishtmvn is the capital, and 
Kingston the chief port. 

Of the smaller English islands, Trinidad, a fertile and 
beautiful island, is near the coast of Venezuela; also To- 
ba'go, Grena'da, Barba'does, and St. Christopher's. French 
islands are Martinique' and Guadaloupe'. Danish, Santa 
Criz and St. Thomas. Dutch, Cura9o'a and St. Eusta'tia. 
Swedish, St. Bartholomew. 



Exercises in Voyages and Travels. 

Describe the Panama route from Boston to San Francisco. The Nica- 
ragua route from New York. The Tehuaaitepec route from Philadelphia. 
Travel from Vera Cruz to Mexico. From Mexico to Santa Fe. How 
would you convey a cargo of mahogany and sarsaparilla from Omoa to Provi- 
dence, R. I. ? A voyage from Salem, Mass., to Truxillo, Hond., and 
thence to Havana and Baltimore. 

vana. Other towns. Exports. — Porto Rico. San Juan. — San Domingo. 
Two states. Hayti. Capital. Dominica. Capital. — Jamaica. Chief towns. 
English islands. French. Danish. Dutch. Swedish. 

25 



CHAPTER V. 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

§ 1. Inhabitants and Countries. 

In comparison with the extent and fertility of South 
America, the population is small, consisting of the aborigi- 
nes, or native Indians, the whites, the African Negroes, with 
Mestizoes, Mulattoes, and Samboes. The whites are chiefly 
of Spanish and Portuguese origin. In Guiana there are a 
few English, Dutch, and French. South America is politi- 
cally divided into a number of states, as follows : The 
republics of Venezuela, New Grena'da, Ecuador', PeriV, Bo- 
iiv'ia, Chile, La Pla'ta, Uruguay', and Paraguay'; the empire 
of Brazil' ; the colonies of British, Dutch, and French Guia'- 
na ; and the unsettled country of Patago'nia. 

§ 2. Venezuela. 
Area, 426,712 square miles. Population, 1,356,000. 

Venezuela is a republic, and is remarkable for its exten- 
sive plains and its rich vegetable productions. ^ The northern 
part is traversed by a range of the Andes, and its southern 
portion by the Pari'ma group of mountains and plateaus; 
while its middle portion forms the basin of the River Orinoco. 
The chief exports are cacao, coffee, tobacco, indigo, cotton, 
sarsaparilla, and dyewoods. 

Caraccas, the capital, is near the northern coast, on a de- 
clivity 2280 feet in elevation. It is memorable for the great 
earthquake of 1812, which destroyed 12,000 of its inhabitants. 
La Guay'ra, 16 miles distant, on the coast of the Caribbe'an 

South America. Population. Whites. Political divisions. — Venezuela. 
Physical aspects. Caraccas. La Guayra. Other towns. — New Gbenada. 

(290) 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OP SOUTH AMERICA. 291 

Sea, is its seaport. Other important towns, Valen'cia, 
Co'ro, Truxirio, Mer'ida, Cumana', and Angostd'ra. 



§ 3. New Grenada. 
Area, 394,664 square miles. Population, 2,243,054. 

This state occupies the north-west part of South America, 
and incUides the Isthmus of Panama'. It consists of elevat- 
ed table lands extending northward from the Knot of Pas'to, 
on the southern frontier, to the sea coast. The soil is fertile, 
producing cotton, grain, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, and indigo ; 
and the mines yield gold, silver, plat'ina, emeralds, copper, 
lead, and salt. The Isthmus of Panama' forms one of the 
departments of the state, and contains the towns of Pana- 
ma', Cha'gres, Por'to Bel'lo, and Vera'gua. 

Bogota', the capital, is in the interior, on a beautiful, fer- 
tile plain, 8730 feet above the sea level. Carthage'na, San'ta 
Mar'tha, and Hon'da are situated on the northern coast; 
Popayan' and Pasto in the south. 



§ 4. Ecuador. 
Area, 325,000 square miles. Population^ 665,000. 

Ecuador is a republic, and resembles New Grena'da in 
climate, soil, and productions ; and contains some of the 
remarkable summits of the Andes — Chimbora'zo, Pichin'- 
cha, Cotopax'i, and Antisa'na. 

Qui'to, the capital, is situated under the equator, on an 
elevated plateau, 9543 feet above the level of the sea. The 
city is well built and handsome ; the churches are splendid ; 
it possesses all the comforts and luxuries of civilized life, in 
a situation of unrivalled grandeur and beauty. Guayaquil', 
on the Pacific, is distinguished for its excellent harbor and 
extensive commerce. Riobam'ba, Lo'ja, and Jaen' are among 
the other important towns. 

Situation. Aspects. Soil. Productions. Minerals. Isthmus of Panama. 
Towns. Bogota. Other cities. — Ecuador. Summits of the Andes within 



292 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 5. Peru. 
Area, 520,000 square miles. Population, 2,127,662. 

Peru is noted for ,the variety of its climate and produc- 
tions, and its mines of the precious metals. 

Li'ma, the capital, is situated on the Ri'mac, in a delight- 
ful valley, 7 miles from the seaport of Callao^ on the Pacific. 
Ciiz'co, about 250 miles from the ocean, was the capital of 
the ancient empire of the Incas. It was regarded by the 
natives as a sacred city, and contained the celebrated temple 
of the sun. It was originally connected with Qui'to by two 
immense causeways 1500 miles in length. Arequi'pa, Ari'ca, 
and Pay'ta are considerable towns on the coast. 

§ 6. Bolivia. 
Area, 374,480 square miles. Population, 1,700,000. 

Bolivia was once a part of Peru. Though mining is ex- 
tensively carried on, the chief pursuit of the people is agri- 
culture. The western part of Bolivia is traversed by the 
ranges of the Andes, in which are some of the loftiest sum- 
mits ; while in the eastern part are the extensive plains of 
Mo'jos and Chiqui'tos. Between the Andes and the Pacific 
is the Desert of Ataca'ma. 

Chuquisd' ca, the capital, is situated on a plain, in the cen- 
tral part of the state. La Paz, north-west of the capital, is 
the chief commercial city of Boli/ia; it is elevated 12,150 
feet above the sea level. Poto'si, formerly a large and opu- 
lent city, celebrated for its rich silver mines, is situated at 
the height of 13,330 feet above the sea, on the western 
declivity of the Cer'ro-de-Poto'si. This mountain seems to 
consist entirely of silver ore, of different degrees of richness. 
Cobi'ja is a little village in the Desert of Ataca'ma, and de- 
serves notice as being the only seaport of the republic. 

it. Quito. Guayaquil. Other towns. — Peru. Lima. Cuzco. Other towns. 
— BoLiTiA. Aspects. Desert. Chuquisaca. La Paz. Potosi. Cobija. — 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OP SOUTH AMERICA. 293 

§ 7. Chile. 

Area, 171,244 square miles. Population, 1,600,000. 

Chile is the best governed and most prosperous state in 
South America, and consists of a long, narrow territory, ex- 
tending 1200 miles along the Pacific coast It presents a 
plain, gradually rising in elevation as it recedes from the 
coast and approaches the Andes. The maritime part is 
'intersected by three ridges, running parallel with the Andes ; 
the midland part is generally level, of great fertility, and a 
delightful climate. This state is the most thickly-settled 
portion of South America. Agriculture is the leading pur- 
suit ; the commerce is large and increasing ; and the mining 
of copper and silver is extensive. 

Santid'go, the capital, is on a plain, about 90 miles from 
the sea. It is connected by a railroad with Valparai'so, the 
chief seaport of Chile, which stands on the Pacific, and has 
a fine harbor. Coquim'bo, Copia'po, Concep'cion, and Val- 
div'ia are among the other important places. 

§ 8. The Argentine Republic. 

Area, 726,000 square miles. Population, 829,400. 

This is an entensive country, distinguished for its immense 
plains, called pampas, on which vast herds of wild horses 
and cattle roam at large. The confederation consists of 
thirteen states and the territory of Grand Chaco, of wliich 
the city of Buenos Ay 'res is the capital, situated on the 
south bank of the Ri'o de la Pla'ta. It is one of the princi- 
pal cities of South America, and distinguished both for its 
literary and commercial activity. Corrien'tes, Cordo'va, San 
Juan', and Mendo'za are other principal towns. 

Chile. Maritime part. Midland part. Comparison. Agriculture. Mining. 
Santiago. Valparaiso. Other towns. — Buenos Ayres. States. City of 

25* 



89i POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 9. Uruguay, ok. Banda Oriental. 

Area, 120,000 square miles. Population, 250,000. 

Uruguay is a small state, lying between the Atlantic 
ocean and the La Pla'ta and Uruguay' Rivers. It has a fer- 
tile soil, healthful climate, and a favorable situation for com- 
merce. Mon'tevideo, the capital, is on the north bank of 
the Ri'o de la Pla'ta, near its mouth. 

§ 10. Paraguay. 

Area, 84,000 square miles. Population, 260,000. 

Paraguay is a small inland state, lying between the Para- 
na' and Paraguay' Rivers. Its surface is level, soil fertile, 
and climate healthy. Its most noted production is mat'te, 
called Paraguay tea. The chief towns are Asuncion^ ihe 
capital, Villa Ri'ca, and Vil'la Real'. 

§ 11. Empire of Brazil. 
Area, 3,956,000 square miles. Population, 6,065,000 

Brazil occupies about one third of the South American 
continent, and is one of the richest countries in j;he world 
in vegetable and mineral productions. The climate, for the 
most part, is mild and genial ; the soil rich ; and the surface 
diversified with mountains and valleys, hills and plains. It 
is politically divided into nineteen provinces. The white in- 
habitants are principally Portuguese, or of Portuguese origin. 
Much of the country has never been explored, and is occu- 
pied by savage tribes of independent Indians. 

Ri'd JanWrd is the capital and chief city of the empire. 
It is situated on a bay of the Atlantic, which forms one of 
the best harbors in the world. Bahia, or San Salvador', on 
the strait leading to the Bay of All Saints, is the rival of the 
capital in commerce. Pernambil'co, Natal', Maranham', Pa- 
ra', are all important places. 

Buenos Ayres. Other towns. — Ubuguay. Montevideo. — Paraguay. 
Tea. Chief towns. — Brazil. Climate. Soil. Surface. Divisions. White 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA. 295 

§ 12. Guiana. 
Area, 162,560 square miles. Population, 213,975. 

Guiana comprises three colonies, severally belonging to 
Great Britain, Holland, and France. 

Demerara, or British Guiana, is the western portion, and 
includes the three colonies of Demera'ra, Berbice', and Esse- 
qui'bo. The chief towns are Georgetown, the capital, and 
New Amsterdam. 

Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, is the middle portion, and con- 
sists of unhealthy marshes, drained by canals. Paramar'ibo, 
the capital, is on the Surinam River. It has a good harbor 
and extensive commerce. 

Cayenne, or French Guiana, is the eastern portion. It is 
divided into two districts — Cayenne' and Sinnamari. Cay- 
enne, on the island of that name, is the capital. 

§ 13. Patagonia. 

Area, 80,000 square miles. Population, 20,000. 

This territory, comprising the southern point of the conti- 
nent, is wholly occupied by Indians, who are in a savage 
state, and of remarkably large stature. 

Exercises in Voyages and Travels. 

Describe a voyage from New York to Rio Janeiro, "nience to Buenos 
Ayres. From La Guayra to Panama by sea and land. The same as a 
sea voyage. Voyage from Cayenne to Asuncion. From Valparaiso to 
Callao, touching at the intermediate ports. From Carthagena to Boston. 
A cargo of coffee from Rio Janeiro to Providence. Describe the overland 
route from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso. Ship a cargo of hides and horns 
at Montevideo, and select a market in the United States. 

population. Indians. Rio Janeiro. Bahia. Other towns. — Guiana. Col- 
onies. Demeraia. Surinam. Cayenne. — Patagonia. 



CHAPTER VI. 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF EUROPE. 

§ 1. Inhabitants and Countries. 

Europe surpasses all other continents in wealth, intel- 
ligence, and general civilization. It is characterized by the 
irregularities of its shape and surface, and its numerous inland 
seas, gulfs, peninsulas, and headlands. The inhabitants of 
Europe include many varieties, but the prevailing races are 
the Teutonic, CeFtic, and Slavo'nian. In the greater part 
of the continent these races are mixed, but the blood is 
purely Teuton'ic throughout Iceland, Scandina'via, round the 
Gulf of Both'nia, in Denmark, Germany, and the east of 
England, from Portsmouth to the Tyne. The pure Cel'tic is 
confined to the north and north-west of Spain, the south and 
south-west of France, a part of the Grisons' and Switzer- 
land, and some part of Great Britain and Ireland. The Sla- 
vo'nian is widely dispersed in Middle Russia. These three 
races have been much improved, by mixture, in appearance, 
energy, and versatility of mind. At present the Teuton'ic 
race, including the inhabitants of North America and the 
British colonies, considerably outnumber the CeFtic, though 
its numbers were far inferior in ancient times. The Teuton'- 
ic variety has subdued, and even exterminated the other 
varieties in its progress towards the west. It is undoubtedly 
the most vigorous, both in body and mind, and seems des- 
tined to conquer and civilize the whole world. It is a 
singular fact, whatever the cause may be, that the Celts are 
invariably Roman Catholic, wliile the Teuton'ic population 
is inclined to Protestantism. Various other races inhabit 
Europe, as the Turks, Finns, the Samoiedes', who live on 
the shores of the White Sea and in the north-east of Russia, 

EuKOPE. Its points of excellence. Characteristics. Prevailing races. 
Teutonic countries. Celtic countries. Slavonic countries. Comparative num- 
bers of the Teutonic and Celtic races. Superiority of the Teutonic race. 

(296) 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF EUROPE. 297 

and the Hungarians. There are many mixed Tartar tribes, 
chiefly in the south and east of Russia ; also Jews and 
Gypsies, who Uve among all nations, yet mix with none. 

The governments of Europe are chiefly monarchical ; and 
in almost every European state we find the citizens divided 
into four distinct classes. The first is that of the nobility, 
which exists in most states, with the exception of Norway, 
Switzerland, and the Turkish empire. The second class 
is formed of the clergy. The third class is composed of 
the citizens, or inhabitants of towns ; these enjoy peculiar 
rights and privileges in most countries. The fourth class 
includes the peasants, and forms the mass of the population. 

Europe may be divided into three sections, as follows : 
Central, comprising Great Britain, Netherlands, Belgium, 
France, Switzerland, Austria, Prussia, and Germany ; South- 
ern, comprising Spain, Portugal, Italy, Turkey, and Greece ; 
and Northern, comprising Russia, Sweden, Norway, and 
Denmark. 

§ 2. Great Britain and Ireland. 

Area, 122,550 square miles. Population, 27,675,324. 

This is the richest and most powerful kingdom in the 
world. The head of the government is in the British Isles, 
which lie west of Europe, and comprise England, Wales, 
Scotland, and Ireland. These, with its possessions in every 
quarter of the globe, constitute the British empire. It is 
one of the " Five Great Powers " which control the political 
destinies of Europe. In the extent, variety, and perfection 
of its manufactures, in its commerce, and in its navy. Great 
Britain surpasses all other nations. The form of government 
is that of a limited hereditary monarchy, and the supreme 
power is vested in a king, or queen, and parliament. The 
parliament consists of two branches, viz., the House of 
Lords and the House of Commons. The House of Lords 
is composed of bishops, and hereditary peers of five difl^erent 
ranks, viz., dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons. 
The House of Commons is composed of representatives 
elected by the people. The Episcopal form of church gov- 
ernment, of which the sovereign is the head, is the state - 
established religion in England and Ireland, and the Presby- 

Their respective religions. Various other races. Governments in Europe. 
Four classes of people. The nobility. Clergy. Citizens. Peasantry. States. — 
Gkbat Britain. Comparison. Extent. The " Five Great Powers " of Europe. 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

terian form, that of Scotland. There is, however, the most 
complete toleration of all other religious sects throughout the 
empire. The most perfect degree of personal freedom is 
guarantied in Britain by the Habeas Corpus act, — which 
secures to the suspected prisoner a trial or liberation within 
a limited time, — the trial by jury, the liberty of the press, 
liberty of " conscience, the right of franchise, and the total 
abolition of slavery. Each city and municipal borough has 
the election of its own separate corporate officers. The 
colonies have each a governor appointed by the crown. 

England is the largest and most important part of the 
Island of Great Britain, and is renowned for its splendid 
cities, its high cultivation^ its numerous railways and canals, 
and its universities. 

London, the capital of the kingdom, is the greatest city in 
Europe. It excels all other cities in wealth, commerce, 
literature, science, arts, and charitable institutions. It is 
situated on both sides of the River Thames, 45 miles from 
the sea. Among the many splendid edifices in London are 
the Parliament Houses, Westminster Abbey, and St. Paul's 
Cathedral. 

Liverpool, on the Mersey, near its mouth, is, next to Lon- 
don, the greatest commercial emporium, and the principal 
place of trade with the United States. 

Portsmouth is the great rendezvous of the British navy. 
Manchester is famed for its cotton manufactures ; Birming- 
ham, for its hardware ; Shefiield, for its cutlery ; Leeds, for 
its woollen cloths ; New^castle, for its coal mines ; Oxford 
and Cambridge, for their universities ; Bath, Bristol, and 
Cheltenham, as watering-places ; and Dover, as being the 
town nearest to France. The electric telegraph crosses the 
Straits of Dover from this place to Calais'. A mail route 
from London to Alexandria passes through France to Mar- 
seilles. A line of steamers runs from Southampton to 
Alexandria direct. 

Wales is a rugged, mountainous peninsula on the west 
of England, abounding in iron, lead, copper, and coal. 
Swansea, Newport, Cardiff, and Caernar'von are its principal 
ports. Holyhead is the chief packet station for communica- 
tion with Ireland. 

Scotland occupies the northern part of the Island of Great 

Points of excellence. Government. Parliament. — England, London. 
Public edifices. Liverpool. Portsmouth. Manchester. Birmingham. Shef- 
field. Leeds. Newcastle. Oxford and Cambridge. Bath, Bristol, and Chel- 
tenham. Dover. — "Wales. Chief towns. — Scotland. Edinburgh. Glas- 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OP EUEOPE. 299 

Britain, and is noted for its wild mountain scenery, and its 
beautiful lakes. The Grampian Hills divide it into two 
parts — the Highlands in the north, and the Lowlands in 
the south. The Lowland Scotch are distinguished for intel- 
ligence, morality, and religious feeling. The Highlanders 
are of Celtic origin. 

JEdinburgh, the capital, is the chief seat of the law courts 
of Scotland, and has long been noted for its learned societies 
and its university. Glasgow, Paisley, and Perth are cele- 
brated for their manufactures ; Melrose, for the ruins of its 
ancient abbey ; Aberdeen, for its university ; and Dundee 
for its linen manufactures. 

Ireland is an island, celebrated for its verdure, and hence 
it is called the " Emerald Isle." The surface is generally 
level, with swelling hills and a few mountains of moderate 
height. The bogs furnish ample supplies of peat for fuel. 
Potatoes and oats furnish the chief food of the inhabitants ; 
but beef, butter, pork, mutton, and other provisions are pro- 
duced in great quantities for the English markets. Linen is 
the chief article of manufacture. 

Dublin is the chief city of Ireland, situated at the head of 
a beautiful bay. It is one of the finest cities in the United 
Kingdom ; its university is one of the most richly endowed 
in Europe. Cork, in the south of Ireland, is the second city 
in importance. Belfast, Londonderry, Galway, and Limer- 
ick are also places of note. 



§ 3. The Netherlands. 

Area, 639,915 square miles. Population, 3,362,625. 

The Kingdom of the Netherlands, or Holland, is a 
low, level country, some parts even lying below the level of 
the sea, and protected from inundation by immense dikes, 
or embankments of earth. Canals are almost as common as 
roads, and serve the same pur})ose. The soil is Ijighly culti- 
vated ; the meadows and pastures are rich and productive. 
Butter and cheese of superior quality are articles of exten- 
sive commerce ; wheat, flax, and madder are raised in the 
northern parts. The Dutch are distinguished for frugality, 
neatness, and industry. Freedom in religious worship is 



gow, &c. — Ireland. Productions. Dublin. Cork. Other towns. — Hol- 
land. Face of the country. Soil. Products. Of the Dutch people. The 



300 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

allowed to all. Their system of education is excellent. 
The government is a constitutional monarchy. 

The Hague, the capital, is situated near the coast, and 
communicates with all the principal places of the kingdom 
by means of canals. Amsterdam is the largest, richest, and 
most populous city. It was once the first commercial city in 
Europe. It is situated between Zuy'der-Zee and Haarlem 
Lake, and is noted for its vast ship yards, its state house, 
which is built on 13,000 piles, and for its canals, which divide 
it into nearly a hundred islands. Rotterdam, on the Meuse, 
is next in commercial importance. 



§ 4. Belgium. 

Area, 11,313 square miles. Population, 4,459,090. 

The Kingdom of Belgium is the most densely populated 
country in Europe. The surface is level, and the soil rich 
and highly cultivated. The people are industrious and skil- 
ful in manufactures. The western provinces are chiefly 
devoted to maritime pursuits ; in the central, manufactures 
are mostly prosecuted ; while in the south, agriculture is the 
chief occupation. Belgium is Roman Catholic by law. The 
clergy are numerous and influential ; the people are ignorant 
and superstitious. The government is a constitutional mon- 
archy. 

Brus'sels, the capital, on a branch of the Scheldt, is one of 
the finest cities in Europe, and is noted for its laces and car- 
pets. Waterloo, 10 miles south of Brus'sels, is the memora- 
ble battle field where Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by 
the allied armies in 1815. Antwerp is an important seaport 
on the Scheldt. Ghent is the ancient capital of Flanders. 
The manufacture of cotton goods has, of late, become a 
flourishing branch of industry. 

Hague. Amsterdam. Rotterdam. — Belgium. Surface. Soil. People. 
Occupations ^ the west, central, and southern portions. Religion. Govern- 
ment. Brussels. Waterloo. Antwerp. Ghent. — France. Government. 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OP EUROPE. 301 

§ 5. France. 
Area, 203,736 square miles. Population, 35,781,628. 

France is at present an empire, and one of the lar- 
gest and most powerful nations of Europe. In literature, 
science, and the arts the French hold a high rank among the 
enlightened nations of the earth. They excel in the beauty 
of their manufactures ; silks, linens, woollens, wines, and 
brandy form the chief articles of export. 

Paris, the capital, on the Seine River, is the gayest city in 
Europe, abounding in magnificent edifices, palaces, prome- 
nades, public gardens, fountains, and places of amusement. 
Lyons, the second city of France as regards population, 
wealth, and commerce, is situated on the Rhone. It is the 
greatest manufacturing town in France, being noted for its 
silk goods and gold and silver stuffs. 

Marseilles is a large seaport on the Gulf of Lyons. Bor- 
deaux is famous for its wines. Brest, on the Atlantic coast, 
and Toulon, on the Mediterranean, are the chief naval sta- 
tions. Rouen is the great centre of cotton manufactures. 
Versailles is the seat of a magnificent palace. Havre is the 
seaport of Paris, at the mouth of the Seine. Rochelle is a 
great commercial city on the Atlantic coast. Calais is a for- 
tified seaport town of France, on the Strait of Dover, and is 
noted as being the nearest port to England. It has daily 
steam communication with Dover, which is 26 miles distant. 
There is also a submarine telegraph connecting the two 
places. 

The Island of Corsica belongs to France. Ajaccio, ( A-yat'- 
cho,) the chief town, is noted as the birthplace of Napoleon 
Bonaparte. 

§ 6. Switzerland. 

Area, 25,261 square miles. Population, 2,390,116. 

Switzerland is noted for the grandeur of its natural 
scenery and the freedom of its political institutions. It is 
situated in Central Europe, between 45° 50' and 47° 50' N. 
lat., and 5° 55' and 10° 30' E. Ion. ; length 216 miles, breadth 
75 to 140 miles. It belongs to the region of the Central 

Points of excellence. Manufactures. Paris. Lyons. Marseilles. Bordeaux. 
Brest and Toulon. Rouen. Versailles. Havre. Rochelle. Corsica. — SwiT- 
26 



302 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Alps, extending between Mont Blanc, in Savoy, and the 
Gross Glockner, in the Tyrol. The immense mass of Mount 
St. Gothard forms the centre of a system of momitains cov- 
ered vi^ith perpetual snow and glaciers. The Alps cover all 
the central, southern, and south-eastern portion of the coun- 
try, and occupy more than one half its surface. The Jura 
mountains extend along the N. W. borders, and between 
these is an undulating table land, 135 miles in length, from 
the Lake of Geneva, in the S. W., to the Lake of Constance, 
in the N. E. Its extreme breadth is 50 miles. Next the 
Alps it is 2000 feet above the sea, sloping towards the Jura, 
where it is 1350 feet. 

The high Alps form vast reservoirs, whence issue thou- 
sands of fertilizing torrents. The chief rivers flow by the 
Khine to the North Sea, by the Rhone to the Mediterranean, 
by the Ticino to the Po and Adriatic, and by the Inn to the 
Dauube and Black Sea. No country in Europe, except 
Scandinavia, has so many lakes in proportion to its extent. 
The climate of Switzerland, owing to its elevation and 
other causes, is much more severe than might be expected 
from its midway position between the equator and the north 
pole. It presents the greatest extremes and the most violent 
contrasts. Vegetation corresponds with the extremes of cli- 
mate. In the Valais, the fig and grape ripen at the foot of 
the ice-clad mountains, while near their summits the rhodo- 
dendron and the lichen grow at the limit of the snow line. 
The great wealth of Switzerland consists in its rich and 
excellent pastures, which in summer support vast numbers 
of cattle. 

Switzerland is a confederated republic, composed of 22 
cantons, united in a perpetual league. By the ncAv constitu- 
tion of 1848, the federal assembly is composed of two 
divisions, a national council and a senate, and Berne was 
chosen as the capital or federal city. Geneva is the most 
celebrated city of Switzerland ; it is chiefly distinguished as 
a seat of learning. 

§ 7. Austria. 

Area, 257,830 square miles. Population, 37,383,456. 

The Empire of Austria is one of the largest, most pop- 
ulous, and pov/erful countries in Europe. It is composed of 

ZERLAND. Republic. Occupation. Capitals. Geneva. — Austria. General 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OP EUROPE. 303 

several nations, embi-acing almost every grade of civiliza- 
tion, and is one of the " Five Great Powers." It includes 
every variety of surface and soil ; its forests are vast in 
extent, and it is one of the richest mineral countries in 
Europe. The provinces of Austria Proper, Tyrol, and Styr- 
ia are German ; Illyria, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Dalma- 
tia, Transylvania, and the military frontier are Slavonian ; 
Hungary, with Slavonia and Croatia, are Magyar ; Galicia 
and Bukovina are Polish ; and Venetian Lombardy is Italian. 
, Vieniia, the capital of the empire, is situated on the right 
bank of the Danube. It is one of the most splendid cities 
of Europe. Among other important places in Austria are 
Prague, Br6nn, Olmtitz, Presburg, Bdda, Pesth, Trieste', 
Gratz, Zara, Venice, and Miran. 



§ 8. Prussia. 
Area, 107,300 square miles. Population, 16,346,625. 

The Kingdom of Prussia comprises two distinct terri- 
tories — one portion bordering on Bussia, the other traversed 
by the Biver Bhine. Between these are several small Ger- 
man states. This monarchy has been built up in modern 
times, by conquest and diplomacy, and is now one of the 
" Five Great Powers " that control the political destinies of 
Europe. The surface is generally level, consisting chiefly 
of extensive plains. The products of the country are grain, 
cattle, iron, coal, salt, and amber. The manufactures are 
woollens, linens, silk and cotton goods, porcelain, and hard- 
ware. 

Berlin is the capital, situated on the Spree. It is a mag- 
nificent city, and celebrated as the seat of literature, science, 
and the arts. Dantzic, near the Baltic, has an extensive 
commerce and great wealth. Among other important places 
are Bugen, Stettin, and Konigsberg, on the Baltic; Coblentz, 
Cologne, and Dds'seldorf, on the Bhine. 

description. The German provinces. Slavonian. Magyar. Polish. Italian. 
Vienna. Other important towns. — Prussia. Divisions. This monarchy, 
how formed. Surface. Products. Berlin. Dantzic. Other seaports. Towns 



304 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 9. Germany. 
Area, 244,634 square miles. Population, 30,164,392. 

Germany, a country of Central Europe, is situated be- 
tween 44° 48' and 54° 50' N. lat, and 6° and 20° E. Ion. ; 
within these limits it comprises all the countries belonging 
to the Germanic Confederation, consisting of thirty-eight 
sovereignties, (including four free cities.) It is bounded N. 
by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic ; E. by Poland, 
Galicia, Hungary, and Croatia; S. by Istria, the Adriatic, 
Italy, and Switzerland ; and W. by France, Belgium, and 
the Netherlands. This alliance of states was formed to 
secure the integrity of their laws and their respective terri- 
tories, and to maintain the peace and order of the whole. 
The confederation is represented by an assembly, called the 
Diet, composed of deputies from the different states, the 
seat of which is at Frankfort an the Main. The Emperor 
of Austria presides over the assembly. 

Germany, in its reliefs, is divided naturally into three 
regions — the upper or southern region, the middle or the 
region of plateau, and the lower or northern region. The 
climate is in general temperate and healthful ; it varies 
greatly in different quarters. Grain is the staple production 
of the north, and the vine is extensively cultivated in the 
south. Fine cattle and sheep are abundant. Germany is 
rich in minerals. Agriculture is skilfully conducted, manu- 
factures are numerous, and commerce is extensive. 

The Germans are distinguished for their industry and per- 
severance. General education in Germany is of a higher 
order than in any other country of Europe ; in many of the 
states the common schools are excellent, especially in Sax- 
ony and Thuringia. There are many universities, and nu- 
merous gymnasiums, lyceums, academies, learned societies, 
and richly furnished public libraries in the different states. 

The cities of Germany are very numerous, and many of 
them splendid. Frankfort is a famous commercial city, situ- 
ated on both sides of the River Main, and is noted as being 
the seat of the German Diet. Munich, the capital of Bava- 
ria, is celebrated for its museums of paintings and ancient 

on the Rhine. — Germany. Its limits. What countries does it embrace ? 
Boundaries. Objects of the union. Diet. Capital. Face of the country. 
Climate. Productions of the north and south. Of industrial pursuits. The 
German people. Education, &c. Of cities. Frankfort. Munich. Aix-la-Cha- 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF EUROPE. 305 

sculpture, and is rich in choice works of art. Aix-la- Chapelle'y 
a frontier city of Rhenish Prussia, is remarkable for its miner- 
al hot baths, and as having been the favorite residence of 
the Emperor Charlemagne. Hamburg, on the Elbe, is the 
principal commercial city of Germany. Its trade embraces 
every article bought or sold in Germany ; it is visited by the 
ships of almost all nations. Leipsic, in Saxony, is the grand 
emporium of the book trade in Germany. At its Easter fair 
about six hundred booksellers assemble to settle their annual 
accounts, and the new-year and Michaelmas fairs are attend- 
ed by a vast concourse of people from most countries of 
Europe and Western Asia. 

The German States. 

I. Austria. Holstein- Oldenburg. 

Prussia. Anhalt-Dessau. 

Bavaria. Anhalt-Bernburg. 

Saxony. Anhalt-Ccethen. 

Hanover. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. 

Wurtemberg. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. 

II. Baden. Hohenzollern-Hechingen. 

Hesse-Cassel. Hohenzollern-Sigraaringen. 

Hesse-Darmstadt, Lichtenstein. 

Holstein and Lauenburg. Waldeck. 

Luxemburg. Reuss-Greitz. 

III. Brunswick. Reuss-Schleitz. 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Lippe-Schauenburg. 

Nassau. Lippe-Detmold. 

fV. Saxe- Weimar. Hesse-Homburg. 

Saxe-Coburg. Lubeck. 

Saxe-Meiningen. Frankfort. 

Saxe-Hildburghausen. Bremen. 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Hamburg. 

§ 10. Spain. 
Area, 176,670 square miles. Population, 14,223,219. 

Spain was once the most powerful kingdom in Europe, 
but is now one of the feeblest. Agriculture, manufactures, 
and commerce languish under the oppressive exactions of a 
corrupt government. Spain is naturally the most fruitful 
country of Europe, being blessed with a fertile soil and 
delightful climate. 

Madrid', the capital, on the Manzana'res, a tributary of the 
Tagus, is situated on a plateau, 2000 feet above the sea. It 
is a dull, but superb city, the royal palace occupying, with 
its gardens, a space of nearly eighty acres. Cd'diz, on the 
island of Leon', on the S. W. coast, is the chief commercial 

pelle. Hamburg. Leipsic. Table of states. — Spain. Effects of the govern- 
ment on industry. Madrid, Cadiz. Seville. San Sebastian. Fcrrol. Barce- 
3q* 



306 POLITICAL GEOGRAraY. 

city of Spain, and has one of the strongest fortresses. Sev'- 
ille, once the residence of the Moorish kings, is situated on 
the Guadalquiv'ir. It is the port from which Magellan 
sailed on his voyage of circumnavigation, in 1519. San 
Sebas'tian is one of the finest towns in Spain, and a place 
of much trade, on the Bay of Biscay. 

Ferrol', in the N. W. of Spain, is one of the three great 
naval stations, with a fine natural harbor, defended by for- 
midable batteries. Barcelo'na, on the Mediterranean, is a fine 
city, and has considerable trade. Valen'cia, on the Guiidal- 
quiVir, is one of the most industrious towns in Spain. Mal'- 
pga, so famous for its grapes, wines, almonds, and other 
fruits, is a fortified city on the southern coast. 

Gibrdl'tar, on a spacious bay at the southern extremity of 
Spain, belongs to Great Britain, and is the strongest and 
mo^t remarkable fortress in the world. It is a rock, forming 
a promontory, 3 miles long from N. to S., and from 1200 to 
1400 feet in height, and almost surrounded by the waters of 
the Mediterranean. 

§ 11. Portugal. 

Area, 34,500 square miles. Population, 3,412,500. 

Portugal was once the first commercial kingdom in Eu- 
rope. The Portuguese navigators first opened to Europe the 
route to India, by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. 
Portugal is now 'One of the weakest states. Agriculture, 
manufactures, and the arts are neglected ; and education is 
in a backward condition. 

Lisbon, the capital, on the Tagus, is finely situated for 
trade, and has a safe and commodious harbor. Opor'to, on 
the Dou'ro, is the second city, both in industry and commerce. 
The principal trade is in wines, both white and red. 



§ 12. Italy. 

Area, 100,439 square miles. Population, 19,365,032. 

Italy is one of the most interesting countries in the world. 
It was once the seat of the Roman empire. At the present 
time, it comprises the kingdom of Naples, or the Two 

lona. Valencia. Malaga. Gibraltar. — Portugal. The Portuguese. Present 
condition. Lisbon. Oporto. — Italy. States now included. Physical aspects. 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF EUROPE. 307 

Sicilies, tlie States of the Church, the repubUc of San 
Mari'no, the grand duchy of Tuscany and Luc'ca, the 
duchies of Mo'dena and Par'ma, the kingdom of Lom'bardy 
and Ven'ice, the kingdom of Sardi'nia, and the principaUty 
of Mon'aco, Italy has the loftiest mountains, the most beau- 
tiful plains, the richest soil, and the finest climate in Europe, 
and is unrivalled for the beauty and diversity of its scenery. 
In music, painting, sculpture, and architecture, the Italians 
excel all other nations. Agriculture languishes under the 
oppressive laws and customs to which the people are sub- 
jected. 

The Kingdom of Naples embraces the southern part of 
Italy, and the fine Island of Sicily. 

Naples, the capital of the kingdom, and the largest city in 
Italy, is noted for its swarms of beggars, its warm climate, 
and the beauty of the surrounding country. Mount Vesu- 
vius, and the ruins of Hercula'neum and Pompei'i are in its 
vicinity. 

The Island of Sicily is the largest, finest, and most beauti- 
ful island in the Mediterranean, producing in abundance 
sugar, wheat, grapes, oranges, dates, &c. Here is the cele- 
brated volcano Mount Etna. Paler'mo, Messi'na, Cata'nia, 
and Syracuse are the chief cities. 

The Popedom, sometimes called the States of the Church, 
occupies the centre of Italy, and is governed by the pope. 

Rome, on the Tiber, anciently the capital of the Roman 
empire, and now the capital of the Papal States, is among 
the most celebrated spots on the face of the earth. It is 
noted for its temples, palaces, and monuments of splendid 
architecture, and interesting on account of its majestic ruins. 
Here is St. Peter's Church, the noblest of cathedrals ; the 
Vatican, or pope's palace ; the Colosse'um, or ruins of the 
great amphitheatre. 

San Marino is a small republic, under the protection of 
the pope. 

Tuscany is the most flourishing and best governed portion 
of Italy ; it is a grand duchy. Florence, on tlie Ar'no, is the 
capital, and one of the finest cities in Europe ; it is noted 
for its paintings and sculpture. Leghorn, on the Mediterra- 
nean, is the first commercial city in Italy. 

Parma, Modena, and Lucca are small states, called duch- 
ies, lying next north of Tuscany. 

Pine arts. Effects of government on industry. Naples. Capital. Sicily. 
Volcano. Towns. The Popedom. Rome. For what noted. San Marino. 



308 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Sardinia embraces the N. W. portion of Italy and the 
Island of Sardinia. Turin, the capital, on the River Po, is 
one of the most regularly built towns in Europe, and it takes 
a high rank for its literary and scientific institutions. Gen'oa, 
Nice, and Maren'go are celebrated places ; the former as the 
birthplace of Columbus, and the latter for one of the most 
brilliant of Napoleon's victories. Spez'ia, on the Mediterra- 
nean, possesses one of the finest harbors in Europe, and is 
the rendezvous of the American squadron in the Mediterra- 
nean. 

Monaco is a small principality under the protection of 
Sardinia. 

LoMBARDY and Venice form the northern and eastern part 
of Italy, and border on Austria, to which government they 
belong. They are fertile regions, and have been considered 
the granary of Europe. Venice, the ancient capital, is one 
of the most remarkable cities in Europe, being built on 70 
islands, and having 500 bridges. It has canals for streets, 
and gondolas, or boats, in place of carriages. Its history is 
exceedingly interesting. 

MWan, now the capital of the Lombar'do- Venetian king- 
dom, is a splendid city, famed for its cathedral, the exterior 
of which, with its hundred spires, and its three thousand 
statues of various sizes, looks like a forest of marble. This 
city is distinguished as the centre of learning and the arts. 
Bres'cia, Cremo'na, and Man'tua, Pa'dua, Vicen'za, and Ve- 
ro'na are also important places. 



§ 13. Turkey. 

Area, 189,470 square miles. Population, 15,500,000. 

The Ottoman Empire, partly in South-eastern Europe and 
partly in Western Asia, comprises some of the most cele- 
brated, best situated, and naturally finest provinces of their 
respective continents. European Turkey is divided into 
nine provinces : Roomelia, Thes'saly, Alba'nia, Hertzego- 
vi'na, Bos'nia and Croa'tia, Ser'via, Bulga'ria, Walla'chia, and 
Molda'via. The government is an absolute monarchy, vested 
in a Sultan, who usually delegates his authority in civil and 
military affairs to the Grand Vizier, as his absolute lieuten- 

Tuscany. Florence. Leghorn. Parma, Modena, and Lucca. Sardinia. Tu- 
rin. Genoa and Marengo. Spezia. Monaco. Lombardy and Venice. City of 
Venice. Milan. Other important places. — Tukkey. The Ottoman empire. 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF EUROPE. 3# 

ant. There is a Council, composed of the principal ministers 
of state, called the " Divan'," which makes all laws, decides 
suits, issues firmans, &c. The imperial court is usually 
styled the " Sublime Porte." The governor of a province is 
called a Pacha'. In religion, all the Turks, and a great part 
of the Albanians, are Mohdm'medans ; the Greeks, Walla'- 
chians, Molda'vians, Ser'vians, and BAlga'rians are members 
of the Greek Church; the Armenians adhere to the Greek 
Church, and the Jews hold to the laws of Moses. The cli- 
mate is agreeable, and the soil fertile and productive. The 
most valuable fruits grow spontaneously, and the grain crops 
are generally more than sufficient for home consumption. 
Agriculture, however, is little understood, and less practised ; 
for such is the nature of the government that property is 
insecure, and industry is obstructed. 

Constantinople, the capital, on the Bos'porus, is built on 
seven hills, and has a safe, capacious, and beautiful harbor. 
The gilded domes and elegant minarets of its numerous 
mosques, rising from. the bosom of the beautiful groves, give 
it a magnificent appearance at a distance ; but a nearer 
inspection presents a confused mass of narrow, winding, 
steep, and dirty streets, with low and gloomy houses. Sal- 
oni'ca, the second commercial city of European Turkey, 
stands on the Gulf of Saloni'ca. Here was situated the 
Christian church to which St. Paul addressed his two Epistles 
to the Thessalonians. 

The three provinces or principalities of Moldavia, Wal- 
LACHiA, and Servia, of which Mssy, Bucharest', and Bel- 
grade' are the capitals, are tributary to the Porte, but are 
otherwise independent. 



§ 14. Greece^ 

Area, 18,244 square miles. Population, 998,226. 

Greece is, in many respects, one of the most celebrated 
countries of the world. Formerly it was the seat of civili- 
zation, learning, literature, and the arts, and the whole world 
was its tributary. Modern Greece is but a small province 
of its once mighty dominion. It is bounded on the N. by 
the Turkish provinces of Albania and Thessaly; E. by the 

European Turkey. Provinces. Government. The Divan. Sublime Porte, 
Pacha. Religion. Climate, &c. Constantinople. Salonica. Moldavia, 
■Wallachia, and Servia. — Greece. Modern Greece. Boundaries. Three 



310 POLITICAL GEOaRAPHY. 

Ai'chipelago ; S. and W. by the Mediterranean. It com- 
prises three distinct portions: Hellas, or Greece Prop- 
er, the MoREA, or Peloponnesus, and the Greek Islands of 
the Archipelago, The peninsula of the More'a is connected 
with the main land of Hellas by the Isthmus of Cor'inth, 

The government is a constitutional monarchy. The pre- 
vailing religion is that of the Greek church. The face of 
the country is uneven and rugged. The soil is best adapted 
to pasturage, and the management of sheep is_well mider- 
stood. Grains and choice tropical fruits are the staple pro- 
ductions. Athens, the capital, and one of the most celebrat- 
ed cities of the world, is situated near the Gulf of Egi'na. 
The antiquities of Athens are the great attraction — the 
Acrop'olis, or citadel ; the remains of ancient temples, both 
within and without the walls ; the harbor of the Piras'us, 
five miles below the city. Nap'oli, in the More'a, is a place 
of some trade ; it is strongly fortified, and has an excellent 
harbor. Lepan'to, Missolon'ghi, Cor'inth, Navari'no, Spar'ta, 
and the Pass of Thermop'ylee are all renowned in history. 



§ 15. The Ionian Islands. 

The Ionian Republic comprises the Islands of Ceri'go, 
Zan'te, Cephalo'nia, Ith'aca, Santa Mau'ra, Paxo, and Cor'fu. 
They are under the protection of Great Britain. Corfu is 
the capital. The people are chiefly Greeks and Italians. 
Wine, olive oil, and currants are the chief articles of trade. 



§ 16. European Russia. 

Area, 1,606,871 square miles. Population, 62,088,000. 

European Russia lies between the Arctic Ocean on the N., 
and the Cauca'sian Mountains, Black Sea, and Daniibe Riv- 
er on the S., and comprises more than one half of Europe. 
It belongs for the most part to the great central plain of 
Europe. The settled population is divided into six great 
classes : nobles, clergy, citizens, peasants, serfs, and slaves. 
Public schools are subjected to the direct control of the gov- 
ernment. The Greek church is the religion of the state. 

Sections. Morea. Government. Religion. Face of the country. Produce. 
Athens. Napoli. Other renowned places. — Ionian Republic. Government. 
Corfu. — European Russia. Situation. Classes of the inhabitants. Educa- 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF EUROPE. 311 

Riissia is one of the " Five Great Powers " of Europe. 
All power is vested in the Czar. He is the central point of 
the administration of government. He assumes the title of 
Autocrat of all the Russias. He delegates authority to the 
three great boards of administration, which are the Council 
of the Empire, the Directing Senate, and the Holy Synod. 
The commerce of Russia is very considerable, and internal 
traffic is annually increasing. Novgorod', on Lake Il'men, is 
the great centre of inland trade. Its annual fair is perhaps 
the largest in the world. Rye, oats, wheat, barley, hemp, 
and flax are the chief productions, which, with iron, furs, 
leather, and tallow, form the principal articles of export. 

St. Petersburg, on the NeVa, at the head of the Gulf of 
Finland, is the capital, and one of the most magnificent cities 
in the world. Mos'cow, the former capital, is situated on the 
Moskwa River, It is memorable for its conflagration in 1812, 
on the approach of the French army under Napoleon. War- 
saw, on the Vis'tula, was the capital of Poland, formerly the 
largest kingdom in Europe. Cron'stadt, situated on the Bay 
of Cron'stadt, 20 miles from St. Petersburg, is the great naval 
station of the Rtlssian fleet in the Baltic. Arghan'gel is sit- 
uated near the mouth of the Dwi'na : it has a fine harbor 
opening into the White Sea, and is the depot of merchan- 
dise destined for Siberia. Ri'ga is an important commercial 
town, situated at the head of the Gulf of Ri'ga. It is one 
of the most important fortresses in the Russian empire. 

Odessa, in Southern Russia, is the first commercial town 
on the Black Sea. Sevas'topol, on the W. coast of the 
Crime 'a, is the principal naval station of Rt!issia in the Black 
Sea. Astrakhan', at the entrance of the VoFga into the Cas- 
pian Sea, is noted for its commerce, manufactures, and fish- 
eries. Cra'cow, the capital of the late republic of Cra'cow, 
was the ancient capital of Poland ; it stands on the Vis'tula, 
160 miles S. S. W. of Warsaw. 



§ 17. Sweden. 

Area, 170,096 square miles. Population, 3,316,536. 

The Kingdom of Sweden forms the eastern portion of the 
Scandinavian peninsula, as far north as the River Torne'a. 

tion. Religion. Its political relations. The czar. Boards of administration. 
Commerce. Novgorod. Productions. St. Petersburg. Moscow. Warsaw. 
Cronstadt. Archangel. Riga. Odessa. Sevastopol. Astrakhan. Cracow. 



312 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

It is chiefly a barren country, descending in long slopes, and 
interrupted by small level plains, and occasionally by ranges 
of hills. The most southerly portion is low and flat, and is 
the most fertile. The country is covered, in the greater part, 
with pine forests. Agriculture and manufactures are in a 
low condition : farmers cannot find a market for their surplus 
produce, and corporations monopolize every art and trade. 
The chief exports consist of iron, timber, copper, tar, and 
grain. Schools are established in every parish : ninety-nine 
persons out of every hundred of the total population can 
read and write. The government is a sort of constitutional 
monarchy. 

Stoch'holm, the capital, is situated upon a strait which 
connects the Malar Lake with an arm of the Baltic. The 
principal public buildings are placed on three islands, which 
are connected with the main land and with each other by 
several bridges. Up 'sal, built on a gentle height and part of 
an adjoining plain in a very fertile country, is one of the 
most beautiful old-fashioned cities of Europe. Goth'enbijrg, 
three miles from the Cat'tegat, is the second town in the king- 
dom, with respect to commerce, manufactures, and popula- 
tion. Carlscro'na, on the S. E. coast, is a strong town, with 
a fine harbor. It is the station of the Swedish navy. 



§ 18. Norway. 

Area, 122,008 square miles. Population, 1,328,471. 

Norway occupies the western portion of the Scandina- 
vian peninsula. With few exceptions, the valleys only are 
inhabited. The chief resources of the people are their 
fisheries, cattle, and iron, copper, and silver mines. The 
government is a limited monarchy. The executive power is 
vested in the King of Sweden ; but the legislative power 
is solely confided to the Stor-thing, or Parliament, com- 
posed of members elected by the people. Christiania, the 
capital, stands at the head of a long fiord, on a low slope 
surrounded with beautiful heights. The foreign trade is con- 
siderable. 

— Sweden. Face of tlie country. Of industrial pursuits. Exports. Educa- 
tion. Government. Stockholm. Upsal. Gothenburg. Carlscrona. — No»- 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OP EUROPE. 313 

§ 19. Denmark. 
Area, 21,856 square miles. Population, 2,296,697. 

Denmark comprises the peninsula of Jutland, the islands 
of Zealand, Fd'nen, Laaland, with the duchies of Hols'tein 
and Lad'enburg. The face of the country is similar to that 
of Holland. The rugged and dreary islands of Faroe and 
Iceland belong to this government. Denmark was formerly 
an absolute monarchy; but in 1834 the king gave his people 
a free constitution, relinquishing a lai'ge share of royal power. 

Copenhagen, the capital, on the Island of Zealand, is one 
of the finest cities in Europe. It has an excellent harbor, 
and an extensive commerce. Elsinore', on the Sound, is the 
place where vessels passing to and from the Baltic pay toll 
to Denmark. More than 18,000 vessels pass this place in 
the course of a year. The tolls yield a large revenue to the 
government. 

Exercises in Voyages and Travels. 

Travel by railroad from Hamburg to Trieste, naming the states you 
would cross, the cities you pass through, and the battle fields on or near 
the route. Travel from Bremen to Lake Constance. From Dusseldorf 
to Basle. From Liverpool to London. From London through Birming- 
ham to Holyhead, and thence to Dublin and Galway. Route of a mail 
steamer from Liverpool to New York. Trace a ship with a cargo of hemp 
from Cronstadt to Philadelphia. A cargo of wheat from Odessa to Bris- 
tol, England. A cargo of dried fruits and drugs from Smyrna to Boston. 
Import a cargo of cotton from New Orleans into Ha\Te. 

WAY. Resources. Government. Christiania. — Denmark. Face of the 
country. Government. Copenhagen. Elsinore. 

27 



CHAPTER VII. 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF ASIA. 

§ 1. Inhabitants and Countries. 

Asia is not only the most populous of the continents, but 
it also comprises within its limits the greatest variety in the 
species of the human race. The principal varieties are the 
Hindoos, the Chinese, the Tartars, the Arabs, and the Persians. 
The Hindoos and Arabs are generally considered as belong- 
ing to the Caucasian or white race ; the Persians are a very 
mixed race ; the Tartars differ from the Hindoos and Arabs 
in feature, complexion, form, manners, and language, and 
constitute the original stock of the Ottomans, who have long 
been the ruling people in South-western Asia ; the Chinese 
are unquestionably of the Mongolian family. Besides these 
native families there are numerous colonies of Europe'ans in 
most parts of Asia ; the Greeks in the Ottoman empire ; the 
Riis'sians in Siberia ; the English, Scotch, Irish, Portuguese, 
French, and Danes in India; the Dutch in Ceylon', JaVa, 
and the Moluc'cas; and Spaniards in the Philip'pines. Asia 
may be said, in general, to afford examples of every possible 
kind of government, from the most licentious republicanism 
to the most atrocious despotism. 

§ 2. Turkey in Asia. 

Asiatic Turkey includes three distinct geographical re- 
gions, viz., Asia Minor and Arme'nia, Mesopota'mia, and 
Syria, including Palestine. The Euphra'tes and Tl'gris are 
the two great rivers. The government is the same as that 
of European Turkey. 

Asia. Varieties of the human race. Hindoos and Arabs. Persians. Tar- 
tars. Chinese. European colonies. Governments. — Asiatic Turkey. 

(314) 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OP ASIA. 315 

Smyr'na, an ancient and celebrated city, and the chief 
commercial place, is situated on the west coast of Asia 
Minor ; it has a convenient and capacious harbor. The trade 
in dried fruits is immense. Ango'ra, 350 miles north-east of 
Smyrna, is noted for its goat's hair shawls. Erz'room is the 
chief town of Arme'nia. Alep'po is the emporium of Northern 
Syria, and is famous for its manufactures of silk stuffs, with 
gold and silver thread. Damas'cus, situated in a fertile plain 
in the east of Syria, is one of the most ancient cities in the 
world. It is the point of union for the caravans of pilgrims 
from the north and east of Asia who travel towards the Holy 
Land of Arabia. Jerusalem, the Holy City of the Scriptures, 
in Palestine, stands on a hill, about 40 miles east of the Medi- 
terranean Sea. The chief support of the city at the present 
time is derived from the numerous pilgrims and travellers 
who resort there to visit the holy places. Trebisonde, on the 
Black Sea, is an important commercial point, being the port 
of entry for large amounts of merchandise intended for 
Georgia and Persia. 



§ 3. Arabia. 

Arabia is a country of great extent and of much historical 
interest. The seas which surround it are of the highest com- 
mercial importance. The nature of the country keeps the 
Arabs divided into petty tribes, and nowhere admits of large 
bodies being consolidated into states. Their governments 
are, accordingly, of the simplest kind, and their princes have 
very limited powers. 

Mec'ca, the capital of Hed'jaz, is noted as the birthplace 
of Ma'homet, and the centre of the Moslem religion. It is 
annually visited by pilgrims from all parts of the Moham'- 
medan world. Medi'na, 25 miles north of Mec'ca, is the 
principal fortress of Hed'jaz. Mo'cha, in the south-west of 
Arabia, on the Red Sea, is a great coffee market. Aden is a 
station on the steamboat route to India. Muscat' is the capi- 
tal of Oman', on the eastern coast, and its imaum' is one of 
the most powerful of the Arabian princes. It is considered 
the hottest town on the globe. 

Three regions. Rivers. Government. Smyrna. Angora. Erzroom. Alep- 
po. Damascus. Jerusalem. — Arabia. Effects of the physical stnucture of 
the country upon civilization and government. Mecca. Medina. Mocha. 



316 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 4. Persia. 

Persia really extends from the mountains of Koordistan' 
to the Indus River, and is divided politically into three inde- 
pendent states, viz. : the kingdom of Iran', or Persia Proper, 
Afghanistan', and Beloochistan'. 



§ 5. The Kingdom of Iran, 

Or Persia Proper, presents a singular succession of low, 
arid plains, deserts, mountains, and table lands. The whole 
country is remarkably destitute of water ; it has scarcely a 
river deserving the name. The people are divided into two 
classes — the fixed, or sheherees', which inhabit the cities, 
and are a fine race, tall, and generally strong and active ; and 
the wandering, or eilants', who are rude, violent, and ra- 
pacious, but sincere, hospitable, and brave. The government 
is a military despotism. For administrative purposes the 
kingdom is divided into large provinces. The Persians 
manufacture beautiful carpets, silks, shawls, cottons, and por- 
celain. 

Tehr&n', the capital, is situated in the midst of a well-cul- 
tivated plain, and surrounded by a high and strong wall of 
earth. Ispahan', formerly the capital, and most splendid city 
of Western Asia, is stiU great in population, trade, and man- 
ufactures. 



§ 6. Afghanistan. 

The Afghans are divided into small tribes, and their 
chiefs, or khans, are elected by the people of each tribe. 
They are mostly a pastoral people, and their subsistence de- 
pends chiefly on the produce of their flocks. Gabool', the 
capital, is situated on the CabooP River, a branch of the In- 
dus, in a large, well -watered plain, and surrounded with 
beautiful gardens. Herat' is a large, fortified city, in a highly- 
cultivated valley, enjoying an extensive commerce and flour- 
ishing manufactures. 

Muscat. — Persia.. Divisions. — Ihan. Classes of the people. Govern- 
ment. Manufactures. Tehran. Ispahan. — Afghanistan. Cabool. Herat. 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OP ASIA. 317 



§ 7. Beloochistan. 

The people of this country are almost equally divided into 
two distinct nations — the Beloo'ches in the west, and the 
Brah'oes in the east. They are almost entirely a rude, pas- 
toral people, living in tents, and moving from place to place 
with their flocks and herds. Keldt' is the chief city. 



§ 8. HiNDOSTAN, OR InDIA. 

The natural boundaries of this country are well defined, 
having the Himalay'a Mountains along the whole northern 
border, and the southern portion circumscribed by the Indian 
Ocean. The diversity of character and language, of form 
and complexion, of manners and customs, among the natives 
of India is extraordinary. The Hindoos are divided into 
four castes or classes : first, the Brah'mins, or priests ; second, 
soldiers ; third, merchants and farmers ; fourth, sd'dras, or 
laborers. 

These castes are not permitted to intermarry, nor even to 
eat or drink with each other. The slightest digression from 
the laws of caste subjects the offender to loss of caste, and 
sometimes to death. This rigorous classification of the Hin- 
doos presents may obstacles to the improvement of the lower 
classes and the advancement of Christianity in India. 

The influence of the Europe'an population, however, has 
greatly modified these ancient customs, and may in time 
effect a thorough revolution in all these respects. In the 
native states the government is a pure despotism. The 
superintendence, direction, and control of the whole civil and 
military government of British India is vested in a Gov- 
ernor General and Councillors, who are indirectly responsi- 
ble to the Parliament of England. British India comprises 
the three presidencies of Bengal', Madras', and Bombay'. 

Calcut'ta, the capital of all British India, is situated on the 
left bank of the Hoog'ly River, 100 miles from the sea. The 
southern or Europe'an part of the city is finely and magnifi- 
cently built. Allahabad', the capital of the north-western 

— Beloochistan. Two nations. Mode of life. Kelat. — Hindostan. Ex- 
traordinary points. Four castes. Laws of castes. Obstacles to Christiani- 
ty. European influence. Government in the native states. Government 
ia British India. Three presidencies, Calcutta. Allahabad. Benares. Delhi. 

27 # 



318 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

provinces, is situated at the confluence of the Gan'ges and 
Jtim'na. 

Bend' res, the sacred capital of Hindooism, is a large city 
on the Gan'ges, and is the chief seat of Brahmin'ical learn- 
ing. Del'hi, on the Jtim'na, is the residence of the Great 
Mogul', whose empire is now limited to the walls of his pal- 
ace, and whose revenue consists of a pension from the " Brit- 
ish East India Company." 

Madras' is situated on the Coroman'del coast, in the Lower 
Carnat'ic ; it is the capital of Southern India, and a stopping- 
place on the route to Calcutta. Bombay', on the west coast 
of Hindostan', is the capital of the presidency, and second 
only to Calcutta in commercial importance. Surat' is the 
seat of the supreme court of the presidency, situated on the 
Taptee' River, near the Gulf of Cambay'. 

Among the many other towns in Hindostan' considered as 
important are Si'kim, near the foot of Mount Kunchingin'ga, 
the highest summit in the world ; Cashmere', on account of 
its shawls of goat's wool, is the most noted town in the ex- 
treme north ; Lahore', the capital of the kingdom of that 
name ; Eondicher'ry, the French capital, south of Madras' ; 
Serampore', a Danish town in Bengal', on the Hoog'ly, the 
residence of the Baptist missionaries. 



§ 9. The Island of Ceylon. 

This is the most magnificent island on the face of the 
globe. It has long been famed for its precious stones and 
pearl fishery ; and its vegetable productions are not less valu- 
able. The cinnamon tree grows wild as well as in a culti- 
vated state, and the cocoa nut, bread fruit, and jack fruit 
trees supply the natives with food. Cotton, sugar cane, to- 
bacco, and coffee grow luxuriantly and without care. The 
pepper vine grows wild over all the island, and enchanting 
groves of a thousand spices surround the villages in every 
part. Ceylon' is now entirely in the possession of the Brit- 
ish. The American missions here have been eminently suc- 
cessful. Cohm'bo, the capital, is a handsome town, and 
strongly fortified. Point de Galle is one of the stopping- 
places on the route to Calcutta and Hong Kong. 

Madras. Bombay. Surat. Other towns. — The Island of Ceylon. Govern- 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OP ASIA. 319 



§ 10. Indo- China. 

Indo- China, or Farther India, is the name given to an 
extensive region lying to the south-east of Hindostan', and 
south-west of China. It is divided pohtically into various 
independent states. The governments are all pure despot- 
isms ; nevertheless, the enjoyment of life and property is 
more secure than in other Asiatic states. Indo- China com- 
prises six political regions, viz. : Bir'mah, Siam', Anam', La'os, 
British territories, and Malac'ca. 

Birmah consists of two divisions — Pegu', which comprises 
the sea coast and the mouths of the rivers ; and A'va, the 
upper country. A!va, the capital, stands on the Irawa'dy 
River; its temples and gilded towers give it an imposing 
appearance. Bangoon' is the chief seaport. Pegu' is the 
ancient capital. 

SiAM consists of the valley of Meinam'. The Siamese 
belong to the Mongolian race. Bankok' is the capital, situ- 
ated on the Meinam', about 20 miles from the sea. 

Anam embraces Tonquin', Co'chin-Chi'na, Cambo'dia, and 
a part of La'os. Hue', the capital, is a well-fortified city on 
a small river, about 10 miles from the sea. 

Laos is a mountainous region north of Cambo'dia and 
Siam'. The sceneiy is beautiful ; the soil is in general fer- 
tile ; and the country is rich in gold, silver, copper, and iron. 
Zemmai' is the capital, 400 miles north of Bankok'. 



§ 11. The British Provinces. 

The possessions of Great Britain in In'do-Chi'na consist 
of several detached provinces and islands. Amherst is the 
capital of Martaban', though inferior to Moulmein' in its ad- 
vantages for commerce. Maldc'ca, the principal town of the 
Malay' peninsula, is the seat of a college for the cultivation 
of European and Chinese literature. Singapore' is situated 
on an island of the same name, at the southern extremity of 
the Malay' peninsula. It is a flourishing place, possessing 
many advantages, and is a stopping-place on the route to 
Hong Kong. 

ment. Columbo. — Indo-China. Governments. Six political divisions. 
Birmah. Pegu. Ava. Capital of Birmah. Rangoon. Pegu. Siam. Race. 
Bankok. Anam. Hue. Laos. Zemmai. — British Possessions. Amherst. 



B20 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 12. The Peninsula of Malacca. 

This is a long, narrow tract, 750 miles long by 60 to 170 
miles wide. The southern portions are chiefly inhabited by 
Malays', and are divided into a number of petty states or 
kingdoms. These people are celebrated for their ferocious 
character and piratical habits, " A bulldog does not differ 
more in form and quality from a greyhound than a Malay' 
from a Hindoo'." 



§ 13. The Chinese Empire. 

The Empire of China, comprising China Proper and 
several external territories of vast extent, forms one of the 
largest, and, in regard to population, civilization, and industry, 
one of the most remarkable nations in the world. Its his- 
tory, its government, and its manners are peculiar to itself 
The rivers of China form one of its most conspicuous fea- 
tures. No country can compare with it for natural facilities 
of inland navigation. The empire is divided into three prin- 
cipal parts, viz. : China Proper, Mantchoo'ria, and the Colo- 
nial Possessions. The latter includes Mongo'lia, Eastern 
Toorkistan', and Tibet'. 



§ 14. China. 

China occupies the south-eastern portion of the empire. 
It is bounded on the E. and S. E. by the Pacific ; S. by Bir'- 
mah and Anam' ; N. by Mantchoo'ria and Mongo'ha ; and W. 
by Tibet'. The people are divided into four ranks or or- 
ders — the learned, the farmers, the manufacturers, and the 
merchants. The members of the imperial family alone pos- 
sess hereditary rank, and are distributed into five classes, all 
distinguished by wearing a yellow girdle. 

The silk and cotton fabrics of the Chinese, their porcelain, 
embroidery, dyeing, and varnishing, ivory cutting, colors, pa- 
per, ink, and many other articles of art and skill, are un- 
equalled by any other nation. In agriculture every acre of 

Malacca. Singapore. — Peninsula op Malacca. Chinese empire. Rivers. 
Tliree divisions of the empire. — China Proper. Boundaries. Orders of the 
people. Imperial family. Productions of the Chinese. Of agriculture. The 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OP ASIA. 3^, 

arable land is employed in raising food ; even the mountains 
are cut into terraces for cultivation. Since the opening of 
the five ports of Canton', Amoy', Footcheoo', Mngpo', and 
Shanghai', by a treaty with England in 1842, the foreign 
commerce of China has greatly increased. Teas and silks 
are the chief articles of export. 

Peking', the capital of the empire, in the north-east, is the 
largest city of China. It is composed of two parts entirely 
distinct from each other, viz. : the Imperial Town, containing 
the imperial palace and the great offices for the government 
of the empire; and the Chinese Town, which is situated 
without the walls of the principal city. Nankin', situated 
near the Yang-tse-kiang', about 120 miles from its mouth, is 
the first city in manufactures, and is noted for its lofty por- 
celain tower. 

Canton', on the Hoang' Kiang', is the chief port of foreign 
trade. Macd'o is a Portuguese town, near the sea, just within 
the entrance of the Gulf of Canton'. Amoy' is favorably 
situated for access, and the harbor is one of the best on the 
coast. Footcheoo' lies north-east of Amoy', in a plain sur- 
rounded by hills. Ningpo' is admirably situated for trade, at 
the junction of three rivers, in about 30° N. lat. Shanghai' 
is the largest seaport in Kiang'-su. The native trade here is 
probably larger than at any other city in China, and near 
1000 junks have been counted at one time lying in the river 
east of the town. Hong Kong Island was ceded to the 
English in 1842. 

Mantchooria comprises all the most eastern portion of 
the high table land of Central Asia. Most of this territory 
is a wilderness. Ching-yang is the metropolis. 

Mongolia lies north of China Proper, and west of Man- 
tchoo'ria. It is described as an elevated plain, almost desti- 
tute of wood or water. The central part is occupied by the 
Desert of Co'bi. 

Tibet constitutes the most southern of the great central 
table lands of Asia, and is the least known of all. Las'sa, 
the capital, is the largest town in this part of Asia. It is fa- 
mous for its convents, and the head quarters of Btiddh'ism. 

CoREA is a peninsula, having the Yellow Sea on the west, 
and the Sea of Japan' on the east. It forms a separate king- 
dom. KingkitaJo, the capital, is situated near the centre of 
the country. 

five open ports. Export. Peking. Two parts. Nankin. Canton. Macao. 
Amoy. Footcheoo. Ningpo. Shanghai. Mantchooria. — Mongolia. -' 



322 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 15. TOORKISTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TaRTARY. 

TooRKiSTAN IS an extensive country lying next north of 
Iran' and Afghanistan'. It is divided into a number of states, 
each governed by a chief or khan. The principal states are 
KhiVa, Khokan', and Bokha'ra. The people are industrious, 
and chiefly engaged in agriculture and trade. Bokha'ra is 
the most commercial town of Central Asia; by means of 
caravans it carries on an active trade with Russia, Turkey, 
Persia, Afghanistan', India, and China. 



§ 16. Siberia. 

Siberia is the general name of the vast region owned by 
Russia occupying all the northern parts of Asia, between 
the Altai' range and the Arctic Ocean. The trade with for- 
eign nations is very extensive and profitable. 

Tobolsk' is the centre of the greatest amount of commerce. 
The productions of the mines, fisheries, and hunting expe- 
ditions are here exchanged for European and Chinese goods. 

Irkutsk' is the chief town in Eastern Siberia. It is the 
handsomest in appearance, and the most elegant as to so- 
ciety in the country. The principal inhabitants are mer- 
chants and the civil and military officers of government. 
Yakiitsk', on the River Le'na, in 62° N. lat., is probably the 
coldest town on the earth. The cold is so intense that mer- 
cury is constantly frozen for two months in the year. 



§ 17. The Empire of Japan. 

This empire consists of a group of large islands in the 
Pacific Ocean, separated from China by the Channel of Tar- 
tary and the Sea of Japan'. The principal islands are 
M'phon, Sikoke', Yes'so, and Keoo'-seoo'. The first is by far 
the largest and most important of the group. Its length is 
nearly 900 miles, and its mean breadth over 100 miles. 

The Japanese are a mixed race, of Mongol and Malay 
origin. In capacity and industry they are not inferior to any 

Tibet. — Corea. — Toorkistan. Principal states. The people. Bokhara.-^ 
Siberia. Trade. Tobolsk. Irkutsk. Yakutsk. — Empire of Japan. Chief 
islands. Race. Government. Mechanical skill. Trade. 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OP ASIA. 323 

of the Asiatics. They evince uncommon skill in the me- 
chanic arts, and excel in smelting and refining metals. The 
government is despotic ; but the emperor himself is con- 
sidered as subject to the laws, which are of long standing 
and cannot be easily changed. In their moral character they 
are represented as manly, honest, and brave, and as enter- 
taining a high sense of honor. The prevaiHng religion is 
BAddh'ism. 

The coasting and inland trade of Japan is very extensive. 
Its fisheries stand foremost in its resources ; the sea and its 
productions contribute as much to the sustenance of the na- 
tives as do the fruits of the earth, rice, perhaps, excepted. 
An expedition to Japan sailed from the United States of 
America in 1853, under the command of Commodore Perrj'", 
for the purpose of opening the ports of this country to the 
maritime nations of the world. He succeeded in negotiating 
a treaty of commerce and friendship, which has since been 
ratified by both governments. 



Exercises in Voyages and Travels. 

Tmvel by the overland routes from London to Bombay. From Bom- 
bay to Hong Kong, and ship a cargo of silks and teas to Boston. A 
whale ship from New Bedford to the fishing ground in the North Pacific, 
naming her probable stopping-places for ship stores, and her voyage 
homeward with a cargo of oil. Describe a voyage, by a line of steamers, 
from New York to Australia, via Panama. Voyage from Liverpool to 
Manilla. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF AFRICA. 

§ 1. Inhabitants and Countries. 

The continent of Africa is an immense peninsula, joined 
to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez, comprising an area of 
11,870,000 square miles. The inhabitants consist of many 
varieties of the human species ; the most remarkable and 
best known of these are the Hottentots and CafFres in the 
south, the Negro races on the south-west and in the interior, 
the Moors on the north, the Caucasian races in Abyssinia, 
and the Copts of Egypt. Feticism, a degraded superstition, 
is the religion of the greater number of the inhabitants, be- 
ing professed by nearly all the negi'oes and the natives of 
Madagascar. A corrupt form of Christianity is professed in 
Abyssinia and part of Egypt ; and Mohammedanism prevails 
in all the other regions. The governments are chiefly abso- 
lute despotisms. The Americans, English, French, Portu- 
guese, Spaniards, and Dutch have colonial establishments in 
Africa. The population of the continent is merely conjec- 
tural, with the exception of Algeria, Liberia, Cape of Good 
Hope, and several small colonies and islands. The continent 
may be divided into five sections — North, Eastern, South, 
Western, and Central. 

§ 2. North Africa. 

Barhary and the Countries of the JsTile and Red Sea. 

Barbary, or Moorish Africa, comprises Marocco, Algeria, 
Tunis, Tripoli, Barca, and Sahara, extending west from Fez- 
zan to the Atlantic, and south to Soudan. Barbary and 

Popiilation. Governments. Districts of tlie continent. — Babbaby States. 

(324) 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF AFRICA. 325 

Egypt formed nearly all of Africa known to the ancients. 
It was peopled chiefly by Moors, Niunidians, and Phoenician 
colonists ; it attained great celebrity nnder the dominion of 
the Carthaginians, was afterwards subject to the Romans, 
and occupied for nearly a century by the Vandals. The 
Arabs took it finally from the Romans about B. C. 697, and 
it is now inhabited chiefly by Arabic, Saracenic, and Berber 
races. The people are ignorant and corrupt. Industry is 
discouraged, and agriculture is neglected. 

Marocco, the capital city of the empne of Marocco, is 
situated in a fertile plain, 125 miles east of the Atlantic 
coast. It is enclosed by a strong, tuiTeted wall, 30 feet in 
height and 6 miles in circumference, within which are many 
large fields and open spaces strewed with ruins. The city 
is ill built and filthy. 

Algeria is a dependency of the French government. The 
commander-in-cliief of the French forces there is Governor 
General. The capital, Algiers, is sti'ongly walled and forti- 
fied, and is in the form of an ampliitheatre, on a slope facing 
the sea. The Algerian Sahara is not, as was long supposed, 
a steiile desert, but a vast arcliipelago of oases, each of 
which presents an animated group of towns and villages, 
surrounded by olives, figs, \ines, and palms. 

Tunis is one of the most fertile and best cultivated of the 
Barbary States, and in ancient times it was one of the grana- 
ries of Rome. Caravans come annually from Central Africa, 
bringing slaves, senna, ostrich feathers, gold dust, gum, and 
ivory, which are exchanged for manufactured goods, spices, 
and gunpowder. Others fi-om Constantinople bring wax, 
dried skins, cattle, and sheep, in return for mushns and other 
woven fabrics. Ten miles north-east of the city of Tunis 
are the ruins of ancient Carthage. The government is exer- 
cised by an hereditary bey, who is nominally tributary to the 
Tiukish sultan. 

Tripoli, the most eastern of the Barbary States, comprises 
the state proper, Avith Barca and Fezzan. The coast line is 
of the most luxuriant fertility for a few miles inland, beyond 
which the whole country is little better than a sandy waste. 
The chief trade is in the barter of European goods for those 
of Central Africa. Barca is inhabited by wandering herds- 
men ; Derne, on the coast, is the largest town. 

Beled-el-Jereed, or the Land of Dates, extends along 
the northern edge of the Sahara. Dates of the finest quah- 

Marocco. Algeria. Tunis. Tripoli. Barca. Beled-el-Jereed. Egypt. 
28 



326 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

ty are produced in abundance, and constitute the chief food 
of the people. 

Egypt is noted for its great antiquity, and the early civili- 
zation of its inhabitants. Its mighty pyramids, splendid obe- 
lisks, and the ruins of ancient cities, are monuments of its 
former greatness. The greater part of the inhabitants are 
Arabs, though the Turks are the ruling people. The chief 
commercial relations with Arabia and India are carried on 
by Cossier and Suez. Since the establishment of regular 
steam packets in the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, 
Egypt has become the route to India for all the correspond- 
ence of Europe, as well as for the greater portion of travel- 
lers. The route from Cairo to Suez, 180 miles, is traversed 
by horses and vans, and the mail is conveyed in 18 hours. 
A railroad communication has been resolved on, and a portion 
of it is built. Egypt, under the government of Mehemet 
Ali, has made rapid progress in civilization. He has added 
to his territory Nubia, Kordofan, and part of Abyssinia. Cairo, 
the capital and largest city, is situated on the right bank of 
the Nile. Population, including the suburbs, estimated at 
250,000. Alexandria, the chief seaport of Egypt, is near the 
west branch of the Nile, on the Mediterranean, 112 miles 
north-west of Cairo, with which it communicates by a canal 
and the Nile. It was once the most splendid city in the 
world, and the centre of science and commerce. It is now 
an important station in the overland route to India. Suez, 
on the Red Sea, is also on this route of travel. 

Nubia is situated almost entirely in the valley of the Nile, 
which is here so narrow as to leave no space for cultivation 
on its banks, and the productive districts occur in the gorges 
between the mountains and on the islands. An extensive 
transit trade is carried on with the interior of Africa and 
Egypt in slaves, gold dust, senna, and ostrich feathers. Sita- 
1dm, on the Red Sea, is the only port. 

Abyssinia joins Nubia on the south-east, and borders on 
the Red Sea. It forms an elevated table land, containing 
many fertile valleys watered by numerous rivers, many of 
which are tributaries of the Nile. Abyssinia, in ancient 
times, appears to have been the cradle of African civiliza- 
tion ; but the early history of the people is merely traditional. 
They were converted to Christianity m the time of Con- 
stantine, and their first rulers seem to have possessed great 
influence. The present inhabitants have preserved nothing 

People. Koute of travel. Cairo. Alexandria. Nubia. Towns. Abyssinia. 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OP AFRICA. 327 

of their former power ; the Turks on the one side, and the 
ferocious Gallas on the other, have almost entirely separated 
them from other nations. The empire has been divided 
into several petty states, the chief of which are Shoa, Tigre', 
and Amha'ra. Anko'har, capital of the kingdom of Shoa, is 
the only place deserving the name of a town in Abyssinia. 
Massouah, on the Red Sea, is the cliief seaport. 



§ 3. Eastern Afeica. 
The Region from Delagoa Bay to the Confines of Abyssinia. 

The Country op the Somaulies. — The coast of Adel', 
as well as the country of Ajan', to the south of Cape Guar- 
dafui', and as far as the River Juba, a little south of the 
equator, has no other distinctive name than Barra Somau'li, 
or Land of the Somau'lies, a mild race, of pastoral habits, 
and confined entirely to the coast. Berbe'ra, on the northern 
coast, is the chief seaport, and the seat of a great fair. The 
exports are coffee, sheep, gum, myrrh, ostrich feathers, and 
gold dust. 

The coast from the equator to Delago'a Bay is known un- 
der the names of Zanguebar', Mozambique', and Sofala. 
It is chiefly occupied by negro tribes in a state of barbarism. 
The sovereignty, as far as Cape Delga'do, is claimed by the 
Imaum' of Muscat ; the remainder, as far as Delago'a Bay, 
by the Portuguese. The Islands of Pemba, Zanzibar', and 
Qui'loa, are the only important places of Zanguebar'; and 
Mozambique' is the only Portuguese port open to foreign 
commerce. 

§ 4. South Africa. 
The Region extending from Delagoa Bay around to Cape JVcgro. 

Caffra'ria lies between Sofa'la and Cape Colony. The 
Caffres do not form one political community, but are divided 
into various tribes. They are described as hospitable, intel- 
ligent, and brave, but dishonest and superstitious ; their prin- 
cipal occupation is that of herdsmen. 

Cape Colony. — The portion of Africa occupied by the 
British colony of the Cape of Good Hope consists of the 

The Somaulies. Chief seaport. Exports. From the equator to Delagoa Bay. 
Cafiraria. Caffres. Cape Colony. Government. Productions. Cape Town. 



328 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

most southern part of the continent, extending from Port 
Natal River on the east to the Orange River on the west. 
The affairs of the colony are administered by a parliament, 
composed of the Governor, Legislative Council, and House 
of Assembly, elected for a term of five years. Corn, wine, 
wool, oil, provisions, aloes, and fruits are the staples of this 
fine colony. Cape Toion, the capital and largest European 
settlement in Africa, is the best place of refreshment for 
ships between Europe and the East Indies. 

HoTTENTOTiA, or the Country of the Hottentots, lies north- 
west of Cape Colony, There are several varieties of the 
race, and they are a quiet, inoffensive, ignorant, filthy, and 
degraded class of beings. 

§ 5. Western Africa. 
Tht J^egro Country, extending from Cape Negro to Cape Blanco. 

Lower Guinea comprises several small states, the chief 
of which are Bengueia, Angola, Congo, and Loan'go. The 
Portuguese claim jurisdiction over the greater part of the 
coast, and carry on the slave trade from the principal ports. 
San Felipe' is the chief town of the Bengue'la country, and 
is principally inhabited by free negroes and slaves. St. Paul 
de Loan'do is the capital of Angola, St. Salvador' of Congo, 
and Loan'go of Loan'go. 

Upper Guinea comprises a number of kingdoms, of which 
Benin', Da'homey, and Ashantee' are the most powerful. 
The coast from west to east has been divided into four re- 
gions, and named from the chief articles which they produce. 
These are the Grain Coast, the Ivory Coast, the Gold Coast, 
and the Slave Coast. Benin', a chief town, on the Slave 
Coast ; Ashantee, on the Gold Coast ; and Ab'omey, in the 
interior, are important places. 

Liberia. — This is an independent republic. It was for- 
merly a colony of free blacks and emancipated slaves from 
the United States, founded in 1821 by the American Coloni- 
zation Society. Its independence was acknowledged by the 
United States and Great Britain in 1848. Thus far it has 
proved to be a most successful experiment for the civilization 
of Western Africa. The soil is rich, producing in abundance 
the tropical plants and fruits. Its commerce is rapidly in- 

Hottentotia. Lower Guinea. States. Jurisdiction. St. Felipe. St. Paul. 
St. Salvador. Loango. Upper Guinea. Kingdoms. Regions of the coast. 
Benin. Ashantee. Abomey. Liberia. Soil. Commerce. Exports. Mon- 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF AFRICA. 329 

creasing in value. Camwood, palm oil, ivory, hides, wax, 
and pepper are important articles of export. Monrovia is the 
capital. The climate is unsuitable foj the white race, and 
therefore very few reside here. 

Sierra Leone is a colony of free negroes, established by 
British philanthropists in 1787 for the purpose of introducing 
the Christian religion and civilization into Africa. The popu- 
lation is composed chiefly of liberated slaves taken from 
slave ships captured by the British navy, Freetown is the 
capital. 

Senegambia extends from Guinea and Liberia to the Sa- 
hara, and is inhabited by negroes intermixed with Arabs 
and other tribes. It is watered by the Senegal and Gambia 
Rivers. In natural productions it is one of the richest re- 
gions. The heat is intense, and the climate extremely un- 
healthy for Europeans. Teemboo' is the chief town. 



§ 6. Central Africa. 

Soudan comprises several powerful and many small king- 
doms south of the Saha'ra and north of the Kong Mountains. 
The greater part of the population are negroes, but the ruling 
people are Moors. Its agricultural, mineral, and animal pro- 
ductions supply the materials of an immense commerce, 
which is carried on with the Barbary States and the west 
coast by caravans, and by flatboats on the rivers. Very little, 
however, is known of this region. Timbuctoo' is the most 
noted of the Soudan' states. It lies north of the River Joli- 
ba, and is the centre of the caravan road from Barbary. The 
chief places are Timbuctoo, Saccatoo, Kemmoo, Sego, Kooka, 
and Warra. 

Ethiopia is an undefined, unknown region, occupying the 
table land of the interior, south of Soudan'. 



§ 7. African Islands. 

Madagascar, one of the largest islands in the world, pre- 
sents a variety of surface and soil. Rice is the staple pro- 
duction. The inhabitants along the coast are Malays and 
Arabs*; those of the interior are savages. Tananarivo' is the 
capital. Tamatave is the chief commercial town. 

rovia. Sierra Leone. Population. Freeto^vn. Senegambia. Soudan. Tim- 
. buctoo. Other towns. Ethiopia. Madagascar. Mamitius. Bourbon Island. 

28 * 



330 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Mauritius, or the Isle of France, belongs at present to the 
British government. It is the scene of St. Pierre's tale of 
" Paul and Virginia." Port Louis is the capital. 

Bourbon Island, in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagas- 
car, is occupied by a French colony. The island is of vol- 
canic origin, and is traversed from north to south by a chain 
of mountains, which divide it into two portions, differing in 
formation, climate, and productions. The exports are sugar, 
coffee, cloves, dye woods, and saltpetre. 

Comoro Isles. — These are four in number, lying midway 
between Cape Delgado and the north of Madagascar. Ex- 
ports, cocoa nut oil and tortoise shell. 

Socotra Island lies 120 miles east of Cape Guardafui. 
The population is composed chiefly of Bedouins. Aloes and 
other gums of the fuiest quality are the chief productions. 

Cape Verd Islands lie about 300 miles west of the cape, 
in the Atlantic Ocean. Cattle, dried and salted provisions, 
arc the chief articles of export. These islands belong to 
Portugal. Porto Praya is the capital. 

The Canaries are about 60 miles west of Africa. They 
belong to Spain, and are noted for their fruits, wines, and 
bhds. They contain numerous mountains, some of which 
attain a great elevation, the Pico de Teyde, in Teneriffe, be- 
ing 12,182 feet. 

The Madeira Isles belong to Portugal. They have long 
been celebrated for their wines, coffee, and tropical fruits. 
Funchal is the capital. 

The Azores, or Western Isles, comprise a group of nine 
islands, belonging to Portugal. The inhabitants are a mix- 
ture of Portuguese and negroes. The climate is very tem- 
perate and healthful, and grain crops and choice fruits are 
luxuriant. These islands afford a convenient resort for ships 
crossing the Atlantic. Fayal possesses the best harbor, and 
is the most frequented. 

St. Helena, situated in the South Atlantic, 1200 miles 
from the coast, is noted as being the place of the imprison- 
ment of Napoleon Bonaparte from 1815 to 1820. Nothing 
can exceed the variety of the vegetation, fruits, and grains 
produced here. Jamestown^ on the north-west side, is the 
chief place. 

Ascension, 800 miles north-west of St. Helena, is garri- 
soned by British troops, and strongly fortified, to sei-ve as a 
place of refreshment for vessels employed on the coast of 
Africa. 

Comoro Islands. Socotra. Cape Verd Islands. Port Praya. Canaries. Ma- 
deiras. Funchal. Azores. Fayal. St. Helena. Ascension. 



APPENDIX. 



TABLE 



Of the Number of Geographic Miles in a Degree of Longitude, 
under each Parallel of Latitude, according to the spheroidal 
Shape of the Earth. 



Parallel 
Latitude. 


Geog. Milea 
in a Degree. 


Latitude. 


Miles. 


Latitude. 


Miles. 


o 




o 




o 




* 


60.000 


30 


52.004 


60 


30.074 


1 


59.991 


31 


51.475 


61 


29.161 


2 


59.964 


32 


50.930 


62 


28.240 


3 


69.918 


33 


50.370 


63 


27.310 


4 


59.854 


34 


49.793 


64 


26.372 


* 5 


59.773 


*35 


49.202 


*65 


25.426 


6 


59.673 


36 


48.596 


66 


24.471 


7 


59.556 


37 


47.975 


67 


23.509 


8 


59.419 


38 


47.339 


68 


22.540 


9 


59.266 


39 


46.688 


69 


21.564 


*10 


59.094 


*40 


46.021 


*70 


20.581 


11 


58.905 


41 


45.346 


71 


19.592 


12 


58.697 


42 


44.654 


72 


18.597 


13 


58.472 


43 


43.948 


73 


17.595 


U 


58.229 


44 


43.229 


74 


16.588 


*15 


57.968 


*45 


42.495 


*75 


15.577 


16 


57.690 


46 


41.750 


76 


14.560 


17 


57.394 


47 


40.992 


77 


13.539 


18 


57.081 


48 


40.220 


78 


12.514 


19 


56.751 


49 


39.437 


79 


11.485 


*20 


56.403 


*50 


38.642 


*80 


10.452 


21 


56.038 


51 


37.834 


81 


9.416 


22 


55.657 


52 


37.015 


82 


8.377 


23 


55.258 


53 


36.185 


83 


7.336 


24 


54.842 


54 


35,343 


84 


6.292 


*25 


54.410 


*55 


34.400 


*85 


5.246 


26 


53.962 


56 


33.627 


86 


4.199 


27 


53.496 


57 


32.754 


87 


3.150 


28 


53.015 


58 


31.870 


88 


2.101 


29 


52.518 


59 


30.977 


89 


1.050 


*30 


52.004 


*60 


30.074 


*90 


0.000 



Geographic miles may be reduced to common miles by multiplying by 
1.158. (331) 



332 



APPENDIX. 



TABLE OE HEIGHTS 

OF SOME REMARKABLE POINTS ON THE EARTH. 



NORTH AMERICA. 
Coast Range Mountains, Country. 

Mt. St. Elias, Russ. Poss., . 

Mt. Fairweather, " «' .. 

Mt. Baker, Wash. Ter.,. 

Mt. Rainier, «« «< . . 

Mt. St. Helen's, «« « . . 

Mt. Hood, Oregon Ter., 

Shasta Peak, California, . . 

Sierra Nevada Range, «< • 

Rocky Mountains. 

Athabasca, Portage, Br. America, 

Mt. Brown, ..'i..** « .. 

Mt.Hooker, ,...,....« « .. 

Lewis and Clark's Pass, . . .Nebraska, . . 

Fremont's Peak, <« .... 

South Pass, <• .... 

Long's Peak, «* .... 

Pike's Peak, Kansas, .... 

Sangre de Christo Pass, .... New Mexico, 

Spanish Peak <* « . . 

El Paso, <• " .. 

Mexican Cordilleras. 

Coffre de Perote, Mexico, .... 

City of Mexico, 

Nevado de Toluca, « 

Colima, (vol.,) < 

Orizaba, (vol.,) « 

Iztaccihuatl, 

Popocatapetl, 

JoruUo, (vol.,) 

City of New Guatemala,. ..Cent. Amer., 
Volcan d' Agua, " *« . , 

Alleghanies. 

Mt. Katahdin Maine, 

Mt. "Washington, N. Hamp., . 

Grand Monadnock, " 

Mansfield Mt., Vermont, . . . 

Saddle Mt., Massachus'ts, 

Wachusett Mt., « 

Mt. Marcy, New York, . 

Round Top, Catskill, « 

Otter Peaks, Virginia, . . . 

Bl'k Mt or Mitchell's Peak,N. CaroUna, 



Latitude. 



60°20'N 
59° 2'N 
48° O'N 
46°50'N 
46° O'N 
45° 5'N 
41°15'N, 



54° O'N, 
52°35'N, 
52° 15' N, 
46°30'N, 
43° 15' N, 
42° 15' N, 
40° 20' N. 
39° O'N, 
37° 30 N, 
37° 30/ N. 
31° 42' N. 



19° 28' N, 
19° 25' N, 



19° 
19° 
19° 
19° 



9'N, 

4'N, 
3'N, 
O'N. 



18° 55' N. 
18°54'N. 
14°36'N. 
14° 20' N. 



46° — N. 
44° + N. 
43°— N. 
44° 30' N. 
42°38'N. 
42° 30' N. 
44° + N. 
42° -f N. 
37°30'N. 
35° 40' N. 



Longitude. 



140° 
137° 
121° 
121° 
121° 
121° 
122° 
119° 



30' W. 

O'W. 
30' W. 

O'W. 
55' W. 

O'W. 

O'W. 

O'W. 



118° O'W. 
117° 30' W. 
117° 12' W. 
112° O'W. 
109° 40' W. 
109° O'W. 
106° 30' W. 
105° 45' W. 
106° O'W. 
105° 10' W. 
106° 30' W. 



97° 12' W. 

99° 5'W. 

99° 26' W. 
103° 7'W. 

97°11'W. 

98° 45' W. 

98°30'W. 
101° 30' W. 

90° 13' W. 

90° 45' W. 



69° + W. 
7104. W. 
720 4- W. 
73°— W. 
73°15'W. 
71°50'W. 
73° 45' W. 
74° O'W. 
79° 30' W. 
82° 20' W. 



TABLES. 



^33 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



Andes. 



Tolima, (vol.,) 

Santa Fe de Bogota, .... 

Pass of Quindiu, 

Pichincha 

Cayambe, 

City of Quito, 

Antisana, 

Cotopaxi, (vol.,) 

Chimborazo, 

Tunguragua, 

City of Cuzco, 

Sorata, 

Areqiiipa, 

Illimani, 

City of Cochabamba, .... 

Sabama, (vol.,) 

Gualatieri, (vol.,) , 

City of Chuquisaca, 

City of Potosi, 

Pass of Come Cabello, ... 

Pass of Dona Ana, 

Aconcagua, (highest of the 

Andes, ) 

Pass of Aconcagua, 

Pass of La Cumbre, 

Yanteles, 

Mt. Darwin, 



Duida, . . 
Itambe, . . 
Itacolumi, 



Country. 
.N. Grenada, 



xuuuauor, 




(( 




(( 




« 




(( 




(( 




« 
Peru, . . . 




Bolivia, . 
Peru, . . . 




Bolivia, . 




(< 




(( 




<« , 




Chile, . . . 




(( 




(( 




<< , . . 




t^ ... 





Patagonia, . . 
Tierra del ) 
Fuego, J 
Venezuela, . . 
Brazil 



EUROPE. 

Mont Blanc, Savoy, 

Monte Rosa, Piedmont, . . 

Jungfrau, Switzerland, 

Monte Viso, Sardinia, . . . 

Ortler Spitz, Tyrol, 

Gross Glockner, " - 

Mont Terglou, Ulyria, 

Pass of the Stelvio, Tyrol, ...... 

<' « the Splugen, Switzerland, 

" " the Simplon, << 

« « St. Gothard «« 

*' «' the Little St.Bern'd, Savoy, 

«< « Mont Cenis Piedmont, . . 

" « Mont Genevrc, .... " 

Monte Como Italy, 

Vesuvius, Naples, . . %. . 



Latitude. 


40 48' N. 


4°35'N. 


40 


— N. 


0° 


12' N, 


00 


4'S. 


0° 


14' S. 


0° 


30' S. 


0° 


41' S. 


1° 


30' S. 


2° 


— S. 


13° 


31' S. 


15° 


40' S. 


16° 14' S. 


16°42'S. 


17° 


21' S. 


18° 


O'S. 


18° 


23' S. 


19° 


3'S. 


19° 


34' S. 


27° 


30' S. 


29° 


36' S. 


32° 50' S. 


33° 55' S. 


33° 


O'S. 


43° 


20' S. 


54° 


O'S. 


3° 


17' S. 


19° 


O'S. 


21° 


O'S. 


45° 


50' N. 


45° 


55' N. 


4G° 30' N. 1 


48° 


38' N. 


46° 


25' N. 


47° 


O'N. 


46° 22' N. 


46° 25' N. 


46° 13' N. 


46° 


32' N. 


45° 


50' N. 


45° 


7'N. 


44° 50' N. 1 


42° 


23' N. 


40° 49' N.I 



Longitude. 


75° 


36' W. 


74° 


8'W. 


76° 


— W. 


78° 


35' W. 


78° 


12' W. 


79° 


4'W. 


78° 


18' W. 


78° 


42' W. 


79° 


11' W. 


78° 


— w. 


72° 


4'W. 


68° 


54' W. 


71° 


50' W. 


68^ 20' W. I 


65^ 


43' W. 


69° 


30' W. 


69° 


O'W. 


64° 


30' W. 


65° 


25' W. 


69° 


— W. 


69° 


- W. 


70° 


O'W. 


70° 


O'W. 


70° 


20' W. 


73° 


O'W. 


69° 


O'W. 


66° 


40' W. 


43° 


O'W. 


44° 


45' W. 


6°52'E. 


7° 


50' E. 


70 


55' E. 


70 


2'E. 


11° 


O'E. 


12° 


40' E. 


13° 


51' E. 


9° 


11' E. 


8° 


15' E. 


8° 


30' E. 


6° 


50' E. 


6°35'E. 1 


6° 


50' E. 


13° 


41' E. 
9at -R 



334 



APPENDIX. 



EUROPE. — Continued. 
Moxmtams. Country* 

Brocken, Harz, Saxony, .... 

Lomnitz Peak, Hungary, . . . 

Munich, city, Bavaria, .... 

Geneva, city Switzerland, 

Schneehatten, Norway, .... 

Mulahacen, Spain, 

Mont d' Or, France, .... 

Parnassus Greece, 

Taygetus, Morea, 

Mount Etna, SicUy, 

Stromboli, Lipari Isl., . . 

Ben Nevis, Scotland, . . . 

Helvellyn, England, . . . 

Snowdon, Wales, 

Hecla, Iceland, .... 

ASIA. 

Kunchinginga Sikim, 

Dliawalaghiri, Nepaul, .... 

Jawahir, Pelhi, 

Chamalari, Bootan, .... 

Ararat, Persia, 

Horeb, Syria, 

Sinai, " 

Elburz, Circassia, , . . 

Cabool, city, Afghanistan, 

Teheran, city, Persia, 

Cashmere, city, Cashmere, . . 



Kilimanjaro, 



AFRICA. 

W.ofZan 
guebar, , 

Miltsin, . . . .• ^.Morocco, . . . 

Table Mountain, Cape Colony, 

Nieuwveld Bergen, << << 

Peak of Teneriffe, Canary Isl., . 



Latitude. 


51° 


48' N. 


49° 


2'N. 


48° 


8'N. 


46° 


12' N. 


62° 


11' N. 


37° 


10' N. 


45° 


22' N. 


38° 


37' N. 


36° 


57' N. 


37° 


45' N. 


38° 


49' N. 


56° 


48' N. 


54°31'N.| 


53° 


4 N. 


64° 


O'N. 


27° 


50' N. 


29° 


O'N. 


30° 


35' N. 


28° 


O'N. 


39° 


42' N. 


28° 


30' N. 


28° 


31' N. 


43° 


21' N. 


34° 


27' N. 


35° 


50' N. 


34° 


3'N. 


3° 


30' S. 


31° 


O'N. 


33° 


56' S. 


32° 


30' S. 


28° 


16' N. 



Longitude. 


10° 


36' E. 


20° 


18' E. 


11° 


34' E. 


6° 


9'E. 


9° 


O'E. 


3° 


28' W. 


3° 


3'E. 


22° 


28' E. 


22° 


22' E. 


15° 


5'E. 


15° 


13' E. 


5° 


O'W. 


2° 


50' W. 


4° 


4'W. 


19° 


40' W. 


88° 


30' E. 


83° 


O'E. 


80° 


30' E. 


90° 


O'E. 


44° 


35' E. 


34° 


O'E. 


34° 


O'E. 


42° 


26' E. 


69° 


8'E. 


51° 


13' E. 


75° 


6'E. 


35° 


O'E. 


7° 


O'W. 


18° 


28' E. 


24° 


20' E. 


16° 


39' W. 



Elevat'n 
in Feet. 



3,740 

8,779 
1,764 
1,450 
8,120 

11,483 
6,220 
8,068 
7,904 

10,874 
2,687 
4,338 
3,313 
3,557 
5,210 



28,178 

28,080 

25,670 

23,929 

17,212 

8,593 

7,498 

18,493 

6,382 

4,137 

5,818 



20,000 

11,400 

3,810 

10,250 

12,172 



TABLES. 
LAKES AND INLAND SEAS. 



335 



Lakes and Seas. 


Country. 


Height in Feet 
above Sea Level. 


Sirikol 


Centxal Asia, 


15,630 

15,256 

12,846 

7,200 

2,825 

1,535 

1,407 

1,250 

1,230 

672 




Tibet 




Peru, 








Snnf.b AfVipa.. ............ 


Baikal 




Tiiipprnp ...... ..... 


Switzerland, 




*( ., 




(( , ....... 


Snnprior ................ 


'N'nrf.li AtTiPTifta. .... .... .. 


T,otp Vflll ... 


A TTTfi pn ia . ........... 


fififi 






36 






Below Sea Level. 
83 


Sea of Tiberias. 


Syria 


329 


Dpad Spa - . .... 


K 


1,312 







COMPARATIVE LENGTHS OF RIYERS. 



River, 



Mississippi & ) 
Missouri, .... ] 

Amazon, 

Mississippi, ) 
(alone,) ) '" 

NUe, 

La Plata 

Yang-tse-Kiang, 

Niger, 

St. Lawrence, . . 

Yolga, 

Euphrates, 

Ural, 

Danube, 

Indus 

Orinoco, 

Ganges, 

Dnieper, 

Rhine, 

Ohio, 

Columbia, 

Elbe, 

Rhone, 

Tagus, 

Yistula, , 

Seine, 

Po, , 



Country. 



United States, 

Brazil, 

United States, 

Nubia and Egypt, . . 

Brazil, &c., 

Cliina, 

Soodan, , 

Canada 

Russia, 

Turkey in Asia, . . . . , 

Russia, 

Germany, &c., 

Hindostan, 

Yenezuela, 

Hindostan, 

Russia 

Switzerland, &c., . . . 

United States, 

Oregon, 

Germany, 

Switzerland, &c.,... 
Spain and Portugal, 

Poland, &c., 

France, 

Italy, 



Mouth. 



Gulf of Mexico, 

Atlantic Ocean, 

Gulf of Mexico, 

Mediterranean Sea, . . . 

Atlantic Ocean, 

Pacific Ocean, ....... 

Gulf of Guinea, 

Gulf of St. Lawrence, 

Caspian Sea, 

Persian Gulf, 

Caspian Sea, • 

Black Sea, 

Indian Ocean, 

Atlantic Ocean, 

Bay of Bengal, 

Black Sea, 

North Sea, 

Mississippi River, 

Pacific Ocean, 

North Sea, 

Mediterranean Sea, . . 

Atlantic Ocean, 

Baltic Sea, 

English Channel, . . . . 
Adriatic Sea, 



Length in 
Miles. 



4,491 

3,600 

3,160 

3,000 

2,500 

2,500 

2,500 

2,000 

2,000 

1,800 

1,800 

1,725 

1,650 

1,600 

1,500 

1,230 

950 

948 

750 

720 

645 

540 

530 

414 

340 



336 APPENDIX. 



GLOSSARY 



Aca'cia, a thorny tree. A genus of the family Legumino'sae, and order 
Mimo'soe. Many of the species yield gum. 

Ac' id, a compound substance or fluid wliich unites with salifiable bases 
to form salts. For example, a compound of sulphur and oxygen, called 
sulphuric acid, unites with sodium, and forms a salt named sulphate of soda, 
or glauber salts. Acids turn vegetable blues to red. 

Acid'ulous, sourish ; having acid properties. 

Affluent, a river flowing into another. 

A'gua, the Spanish word for water^ 

Agul'has, pronounced a-gool'yas. 

Al'gce, sea weeds. These are agamous plants, which live in the air, on 
the surface or at the bottom of fresh or salt water. 

Al'kali, a chemical term applied to the oxides of potassium, sodium, 
lithium, barium, strontium, and calcium. Alkalies turn vegetable blues 
to green. 

Al'kaline, having the properties of an alkali. 

Al'oe, the name of a genus of plants. The thickened juice of several 
of the species constitutes the medicinal gum aloes. 

Allu'vium, gravel, sand, mud, and other transported matter washed 
down by rivers and floods upon lands not permanently submerged beneath 
water. A deposit formed of matter transported by currents of water. 

Al'pine, belonging or relating to the Alps. 

Alu'minum, the metalloid that forms the basis of alum ; of pure argil. 

Androm'eda, a genus of the family of plants called Erica'ceae, and type 
of the tribe Andromedas. 

AnimaVcule, a diminutive animal. A term used to designate animals 
so small that they cannot be seen without a microscope. 

Annual, yearly. A plant which rises from the seed, reaches perfec- 
tion, and perishes within a year, is termed an annual. 

Aphe'lioti, the point of a planet's orbit most distant from the sun. 

A'queous rocks are those formed by deposits from water. 

Arena' ceous, sandy ; of the nature of sand. 

Argentiferous, containing silver. 

Argilla' ceous, of the nature of clay. 

Articula'ta, animals having joints or articulations in their coverings. 

AsphaVtum, bitumen. Anciently used as a cement. A black, brittle 
bitumen, found on the surface and banks of the Dead Sea. 

A'toll, a chaplet or riag of coral enclosing a lagoon or portion of the 
ocean in its centre. 

Auriferous, gold-beariag, containing gold. 

Aza'lea, a genus of plants. 

A'zote, the chemical name for a gas, now called nitrogen, which will 
not support respiration nor combustion. It constitutes seventy-nine per 
cent, of the atmosphere, and enters into the composition of all animal 
matter, except fatty substances, and into a certain number of proximate 
vegetable principles. 

Barom'eter, an instrument for measuring the weight of the air. 



GLOSSARY. . 337 

Basalt' i a black or bluish-gray rock, harder than glass, very tenacious, 
and therefore difficult to break. It is uniform in appearance, although 
essentially composed of pyroxene and feldspar, with a large proportion of 
iron and titanium. Basalt is considered as a product of igneous forma- 
tion. 

Bitu'men, a combustible mineral, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen. 

BouVders, rounded masses of stone, lying upon the surface or loosely 
embedded in the soil. 

Bran'chicc, the gills of fishes. They are their breathing organs. 

Brec'cia, a rock composed of an agglutination of angular fragments. 

Cac'tus, a spine plant. Name of a genus of the family of Cacta'cese, 
indigenous in Mexico. 

Calca'reous, belonging or relating to lime. Calcareous rocks are those 
of which lime forms the principal part. 

Cal'cium, a metal which, united with oxygen, forms oxide of calcium, 
or lime. 

Calor'ic, the principle or matter of heat, or the simple element of heat. 

Car'bon, charcoal. A chemical element. The diamond is pure car- 
bon. It is the basis of all varieties of mineral coal, and is one of the 
principal constituents of all organic bodies. 

Car'bonate, any compound of carbonic acid and a salifiable base, as 
carbonate of lime. 

Carbon'ic acid, a compound of carbon and oxygen. 

Carboniferous, coal-bearing ; containing carbon. In geology, the 
term is applied to those strata which contain coal, and to the period when 
the coal measures were formed. 

Carniv'ora, an order of animals which subsist on flesh. 

Ce'real, applied to grasses which produce the bread grains, as wheat, 
rye, barley, maize, oats, rice, &c. 

Cerea'lia, a name of a tribe of grasses. 

Chalk, earthy carbonate of lime. 

Chlo'rix^e, a new name for oxymuriatic gas. It forms about sixty per 
cent, of common salt, and is a powerful agent in bleaching and disinfect- 
ing. 

Chhrit'ic, belonging to chlorite, an eartHy mineral found in the cavi- 
ties of slate rocks. 

Cir'rus, a tendril ; a kind of cloud. 

Cir'ro-cu'mulus, a kind of cloud intermediate between the cirrus and 
cumulus. 

CirWo-straHus, a wave cloud, intermediate between the cirrus and 
stratus. Its mottled appearance suggests the idea of resemblance to the 
back of a mackerel. 

Coal measures, the geological formation in which coal is found. 

Conductor. Those substances which possess the property of transferring 
caloric, or heat, and electricity, are termed conductors. 

Confer'vce, a tribe of plants of the Zoosper'mse family. It includes 
many sea weeds. 

Conglom'erate, any rock composed of pebbles cemented together by an- 
Qther mineral substance, either calcareous, silicious, or argillaceous. 

Contoicr', the line that bounds, defines, or terminates a figure. 

Coniferce, cone-bearing trees or plants, such as pines, fir trees, &c. 

Cordilleh'a, (pron. kor-deel-yd'ra,) the Spanish word for chain. A 
eeries of elevations linked together continuously, so that their length 
greatly exceeds their breadth. 
29 



338 • APPENDIX. 

Cra'ter, a great cup or bowl. The mouth of a volcano. 

Creta'ceous, relating to or of the nature of chalk. 

Crusta'cea, a class of articulated animals, as the crab, lobster, &c. 

Cryptoga'mia, a class of plants which are propagated without apparent 



Cryptog^amouSt belonging to the cryptogamia. 

Culmina'tion, the highest point of altitude. 

Cu'mulus, a form of cloud. 

Cumulo-sfratus, twain cloud ; it partakes of the cumulus and stratus. 

Debris', wreck, ruins, remains. In geology the term is applied to large 
fragments, to distinguish them from deiri'tus, or those which are pul- 
verized. 

Decid'uous, a term applied to plants whose leaves fall off in autumn, to 
distinguish them from evergreens. 

Declina'tion of any celestial body is the angular distance of the 
body, north or south, from the equator. 

Del'ta, the Greek letter A. The triangular deposits, shoals, or islands 
at the mouth of rivers, are called deltas. 

Deposi'tion, in geology, the falling to the bottom of matters suspend- 
ed or dissolved in water. 

Devo'nian system^ so called because it is largely developed in Devon- 
shire, England. It is the old red sandstone formation. It is composed 
at first of pudding stone, and then passes into sandstone, with which it 
alternates at different places. 

Detri'tuSf a geological term, applied to deposits composed of various 
substances which have been comminuted by attrition. Sand is the de- 
tritus of silicious rocks. 

Disloea'tion, displacement. In geology, where strata or veins have 
been displaced from the position where first deposited or formed, they are 
said to be dislocated. 

Dip, in geology, the direction or inclination of strata. " To take a 
dip," is to measure the degree that a stratum inclines from a horizontal 
line. 

Disin'tegrate, to separate or break up a whole into parts. 

Diur'nal, daily ; performed in a day. 

Electrig'ity, from the Greek electron, amber, the substance in which it 
was first observed. 

Ellipse', an oval figure ; the curve in which the planets perform their 
revolutions about the sun. 

Endog'enous, applied to plants whose stems increase from within. 

E'ocene, in geology, a name for the older tertiary formation, in which 
the first dawn of existing species appears. 

Ethnog'raphy, the science which treats of the different natural races and 
families of men. 

Exog'enous, applied to plants which grow by successive external addi- 
tions to their wood. 

Flu'orine, a chemical element in the form of a yellowish-brown gas. 

Fo'ci, plural of focus, a hearth. In optics, the term denotes the 
point where the rays of light are concentrated by a lens. 

Fos'sil, any organic body, or the traces of any organic body, whether 
animal or vegetable, which has been buried in the earth by natural 
causes. 

Fossiliferous, fossil-bearing. 

Fu'cus, sea weed. A genus of aquatic plants. 



GLOSSARY. 339 

FuncHion, the action of an organ, or system of organs. 

Fun'gus, i^\vira\. fungi, mushroom. 

Gallina'ceous, relating to birds of the order gallina'ceae, including the 
domestic fowls, or those of the pheasant kind. 

Gale'na, lead ore. A mineral composed of sulphur and lead. 

Gas, Germ, geist, spirit. The name given to all permanently elastic 
fluids, or airs, different from atmospheric air. 

Ge'nus, a kindred or race. 

Gey'sers, an Icelandic word, signifying raging, roaring. Celebrated 
spouting fountains of boiling water in Iceland. 

Gla'ciers, masses or beds of ice formed on high mountains, derived from 
the snows or lakes fi-ozen by the continued cold. 

Gneiss, a rock resembling granite. It is composed chiefly of feldspar 
and mica, and is more or less slaty in its structure. Gneiss is used for 
building and flagging stones. 

(h'andiflora, large-flowered. 

Gramin'ecB, the grasses. 

Graniv'orous, applied to animals that feed upon grains. 

Granite, a rock composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica. 

Greenstone, a rough variety of trap-rock, consisting chiefly of horn- 
blende. 

Gypsum, native sulphate of lime. 

Habitat. Used to designate the place in which animals and plants are 
naturally found. 

Herba'ceous, herb-like; that perishes every year. An annual stem. 
Not woody. 

Herbiv'orozcs, applied to animals which feed chiefly on plants or 
herbs. 

Hi'bernate. Animals which retu-e and sleep throughout the winter are 
said to hibernate. 

Hy'drogen, a colorless, tasteless, inodorous gas, one part of which, com- 
bined with eight parts of oxygen, forms water ; combined vnth sulphur it 
constitutes sulphuretted hydrogen ; and with carbon, carhuretted hydro- 
gen, the gas used for illumination. 

Ig'neous rocks are those rocks whose structure is attributable to the in- 
fluence of heat, such as granite and basalt. They are distinct from strati- 
fied rocks, or those formed by deposits from water. 

Impon'derable, not having sensible weight. 

Indig'enous, a native animal or plant. A foreign one is an exotic. 

Infuso'ria, microscopic animals mhabiting water and hquids of various 
kinds. 

Insectiv'ora, applied to animals which feed chiefly on insects. 

Isother'mal, of equal temperature. Isothermal lines are supposed to 
pass through all places where the mean temperature of the aii* is the 
same. 

Juan, pronounced hwdn. 

Joan'nes, pronounced zho-an'nes. 

Joaquin', pronounced hwa-keen'. 

Latent heat, heat not indicated by the theimometer ; that heat upon 
which the liquid and aeriform conditions of bodies depend, and which 
becomes sensible during the conversion of vapor into liquids, and of liquids 
into solids. 

La'va, in geology, substances which flow in a melted state from a yolca- 
no. Lavas vary in consistence and texture. 



340 APPENDIX. 

LVas, provincial corruption of the word layers. In geology, a division 
of the secondary formation. Called also the Liassic, Jurassic, and Oolitic 
system of rocks. 

Li'chens, pronounced li'kens. An order of cryptog'amous plants. They 
include various mosses. 

Lla'iios, the Spanish word for plains. 

Magne'sium, a silvery white metal obtained from magnesia. 

Mamma'lia, name of the class of animals which suckle their young. 

Manganese' , a metal. 

Marajo', pronounced mar-a-zho'. 

Metamorphic rocks are those which are evidently of mechanical origin, 
but owing to the presumed action of heat, have become changed. 

Mica, a mineral, generally found in thin, elastic laminae, soft, smooth, 
and of various colors and degrees of transparency. It is one of the con- 
stituents of granite. 

Mica-schist, mica-slate. A lamellar rock composed of quartz, ordina- 
rily grayish, and a great quantity of brilliant lamellae of mica arranged 
in scales, or extended leaves. 

Mineral springs. These may be divided into six classes : 1. Acidulous ; 
2. Chalybeate ; 3. Sulphureous ; 4. Sahne ; 5. Calcareous ; 6. Silicious. 

Acidulous waters present a sparkling appearance, which arises from 
their containing carbonic acid gas. Of this the pleasant beverage called 
Seltzer water is an example. Chalybeate springs are such as hold in so- 
lution either carbonate or sulphate of iron. Sulphureous springs contain 
sulphur, either in the form of sulphuretted hydrogen, or of sulphate of 
lime. Saline springs are of two kinds : brine springs, and medicinal salt 
springs. Brine springs contain, besides some other mineral ingredients, a 
greater or less proportion of common salt, some springs yielding one 
fourth of their weight in salt. Medicinal salt springs contain, besides 
common salt, sulphate of soda and magnesia. Calcareous springs are 
highly charged with calcareous matter, and are found in limestone rocks, 
from which they derive their ingredients ; these are usually termed pet- 
rifying or mineralizing sprmgs. When water percolates through limestone 
rocks' into caverns, very beautiful formations called stalactites and stalag- 
mites are met with. Silicious springs are such as hold silica, or flint, in 
solution. These are all hot or thermal springs, the geysers of Iceland 
being the most remarkable. 

Mi'ocene, in geology, a name of a gToup of rocks of the tertiary 
period. 

MoVlusk, applied to certain soft animals' which inhabit shells ; as 
oysters. 

Moraines', the name given by geologists to longitudinal deposits of stony 
detritus found at the bases and along the edges of all the great glaciers. 

Mu'ral, belonging or relating to a wall. 

Nim'bus, rain-cloud. 

Ni'trogen. See Azote. 

Nod'ule, a knot. A rounded mineral mass of irregular shape. 

Non-conduct' or, applied to substances which do not possess the prop- 
erty of transmitting electricity or heat freely. 

O'olite, a granular variety of carbonate of lime. 

Organic remains, the fossil remains of organized beings. 

Out-crop, in geology, the emergence of a rock in place, at the surface. 

Oxygen, the vivifying gas which constitutes about one fifth of the at- 
mesphere, the presence of which is essential to life. 



GLOSSARY. 341 

Pachyder'mata, an order of the mammalia, having thick skins ; as the 
elephant, rhinoceros. 

Paleozo'ic, relating to ancient life ; belonging to fossils. 

Papy'rits, a genus of plants. The papyms antiquorum yields the sub- 
stance used as paper by the ancient Egyptians. 

Parhelion, a mock sun ; a meteor having the appearance of several 
suns, fantastic images of the true one. 

Pelag'ic, relating to the sea. 

Perihe'lion, that part of a planet's orbit nearest the sun. 

Plateau, a table ; an elevated table land. 

Pli'ocene, a name applied to the newer tertiary formation, because there 
is found fossilized in it a greater number of existing than of extinct 
species. 

Pluton'ic rocks, unstratified crystalline rocks, probably formed at great 
depths beneath the surface, by igneous fusion. Volcanic rocks are formed 
near the surface. 

Polarized light, light so modified as to possess poles or sides having op- 
posite properties. Light by reflection or refraction, when passed through 
crystals possessing the power of double refraction, becomes modified. 

Por'phyry, originally applied to a red rock found in Egypt. A com- 
pact feldspathic rock, containing disseminated crystals of feldspar, the 
latter, when polished, forming small angular spots of a light color, thickly 
sprinkled over its surface. The rock is of various colors, dark green, red, 
blue, black, &c. 

Primary formation, a term used to designate the different rocks which 
were formed prior to the creation of plants and animals. 

Radiata, radiates ; the name of a class of zoophytes. 

Radiation, the emission of rays of light or of heat from a luminous or 
heated body. 

Relief, the projecture or prominence of a figure 'above or beyond the 
ground or plane on which it is formed. 

Resinous electricity is that electricity which is excited by rubbing bodies 
of the resinous kind. 

Rodentia, gnawers ; an order of mammalia comprising such as the 
beaver, the squirrel, the rat. They have two large incisor teeth in each 
jaw. 

Rtiminan'tia, an order of mammalia which are characterized by chewing 
the cud. 

Saline, salt ; consisting of salt. 

Schist, or Schistus, slate. 

Schistose, slaty. 

Secondary formation. In geology, the formation which is next in order 
to the transition formation. 

Sediment, that which subsides or settles to the bottom of any liquid. 

Serrate, toothed like a saw. 

Shale, an indurated slaty clay or clay slate. 

Shingle, loose, water- worn gravel and pebbles. 

Sier'ra, (Spanish,) a mountain chain. 

Si'lex, the chief constituent of quartz, rock crystal, and other silicious 
minerals. 

Silu'rian system, a series of rocks, called after the Siluri, or ancient 
Britons, who dwelt in the region where these strata are most distinctly 
developed. They are entirely of marine origin. 
29* 



342 APPENDIX. 

SiVva, or Selvaf a forest or woods. 

Steppe, a level waste destitute of trees ; a prairie. 

Stra'tum, in geology, a bed of sedimentary rock. 

Stra'tus, a kind of cloud consisting of horizontal layers, and including 
fogs and mists. Its under surface usually rests on the land or sea, and 
it is therefore the lowest of the clouds. 

Sienite, a granite rock from Siene, in Egypt. It consists of quartz, 
feldspar, and hornblende. 

Tertiary formation, a series of sedimentary rocks which are superior to 
the secondary and primary, and distinguished by the fossils found in them. 

Tacaz'ze, pronounced td-Jcdt'sa. 

Thei''mal, relating to warmth. 

Tra'chyte, a variety of lava. 

Trap, (Swedish trappa,) a flight of stairs, because trap rocks frequently 
occur in large tabular masses rising like steps. Trap rocks are composed 
of feldspar, augite, and hornblende. 

Tri'as, a group of sandy marls of variegated colors. 

Truxil'lo, pron. troo-heel'yo. 

Vertebrates, having vertebrse, or a spine. 

Vitivous electricity, is that kind which is excited by rubbing glass. 

Xala'pa, pron. ha-ld'pa. 

Xaray'es, pron. hd-ri'es. 

Xingu', pron. shin-goo'. 

Zenith, the top of the heaven, or point directly overhead. 



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